THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL 
AND  THE  COMMUNITY 


BY 

INEZ  N.  McFEE 

AUTHOR  OF  STUDIES  IN  AMERICAN  AND  BRITISH  LITERATURE 

AMERICAN  HEROES    FROM  HISTORY 
THE  STORY  OF  THE  IDYLLS  OF  THE  KING 


AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT.  1918,  BY 

INEZ  N.  McFEE 

The  Teacher,  the  School  and 
the  Community 


W.  P.  1 


/, 


MAIN 

•    • 


PREFACE 

TN  preparing  the  following  pages  the  author  has  had  in 
^  mind  the  three-fold  object  of  modern  education:  the 
training  of  the  physical,  the  mental,  and  the  moral  nature 
of  the  child.  The  environment  of  school  life  should  be  in 
harmony  with  his  unfolding  nature  and  growing  abilities, 
and  it  should  also  be  a  source  of  constant  pleasure  to  him. 

The  pupil  who  is  absent  from  school  should  be  con- 
scious that  he  is  missing  something  —  not  enjoying  a 
reprieve.  To  this  end,  a  variety  of  suggestions,  helps,  and 
recreations  are  offered  to  make  the  study  of  the  common 
branches  more  interesting.  The  chapters  on  nature  study, 
the  country  school  as  a  public  health  educator,  and  what 
to  do  with  agriculture  and  home  science  may  be  most  wel- 
come to  the  rural  teachers  who  have  been  struggling  with 
such  problems.  Effort  has  been  made  to  unify  the  work 
of  the  school  and  the  home,  and  special  consideration  has 
been  given  to  the  school  as  a  community  center  and  as  the 
stimulating  source  for  clear  thinking,  good  farming,  and 
right  living. 

Thanks  are  due  for  permissions  to  use  quotations  from 
the  works  of  various  authors.  Selections  from  the  works  of 
Longfellow,  Whittier,  and  Lowell,  are  used  by  courtesy  of 
the  authorized  publishers,  Hough  ton  Mifflin  Company. 


And  he  gave  it  for  his  opinion  that 
whoever  would  make  two  ears  of  corn  or 
two  blades  of  grass  to  grow  upon  a  spot 
of  ground  where  only  one  grew  before, 
would  deserve  better  of  mankind,  and 
do  more  essential  service  to  his  country, 
than  the  whole  race  of  politicians  put 
together. — JONATHAN  SWIFT. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


I  BEGINNING  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR .  7 

II  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT 13 

III  SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS 24 

IV  BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOLROOM 30 

V  AWAKENING  INTEREST  IN  SCHOOL 36 

VI  CONDUCTING  RECITATIONS 43 

VII  THE  SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY  CENTER  ....  48 

VIII  THE  CLASS  IN  READING 63 

IX  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC 73 

X  HISTORY  IN  THE  GRADES 81 

XI  A  TALK  WITH  THE  GRAMMAR  TEACHER  ....  87 

XII  WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS 94 

XIII  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  HYGIENE no 

XIV  LITERATURE  AND  COMPOSITION 123 

XV  THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 134 

XVI  NATURE  STUDY 142 

XVII  WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  AGRICULTURE 173 

XVIII  HOME  SCIENCE 207 

XIX  SCHOOL  RECREATIONS  AND  AMUSEMENTS    ....  230 

XX  DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS 236 

XXI  THE  REWARDS  OF  THE  SUCCESSFUL  TEACHER      .     .  244 


If  angels  ever  visit  our  earth  and  hover  unseen  around  the  gatherings 
of  mortals  to  survey  their  actions  and  contemplate  their  destiny  as  affected 
by  human  instrumentality,  it  seems  to  me  there  can  be  no  spectacle  so 
calculated  to  awaken  their  interest  and  enkindle  their  sympathy  as  when 
they  see  the  young  gathering  together  from  their  scattered  homes  to  receive 
an  impress  for  weal  or  woe,  from  the  hand  of  him  who  has  undertaken  to 
guide  them.  DAVID  P.  PAGE. 


THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL 
AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

CHAPTER  I 
BEGINNING  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR 

The  first  day  of  school  is  perhaps  the  most  critical  day 
of  the  year,  for  much  depends  upon  a  good  beginning. 
Before  opening  a  school,  the  wise  teacher  has  clearly  in 
mind  a  general  plan  of  what  she  intends  to  accomplish. 
Perhaps  in  no  other  enterprise  is  a  little  forethought  of  so 
much  advantage.  Even  an  experienced  teacher  would  be 
confused  if  suddenly  placed,  without  plans,  before  half  a 
hundred  eager  children  awaiting  occupation  and  direction. 
They  have  come  full  of  interest  in  the  prospects  of  the  new 
school,  and  most  of  them  are  ready  to  engage  cheerfully  in 
whatever  plans  the  teacher  may  have  to  propose;  but  they 
will  soon  be  equally  as  ready  to  arrange  and  carry  into 
effect  their  own  plans  of  disorder  and  misrule,  should  they 
find  that  there  is  no  definite  system  to  be  introduced. 

Glance  back  upon  your  own  school  days.  Do  you  not 
remember  how  eagerly  you  awaited  the  advent  of  the  new 
teacher?.  How  carefully  you  " sized  her  up,"  and  then 
retired  under  some  shady  tree  or  behind  the  woodpile  to 
discuss  what  you  thought  she  would  or  would  not  do! 
Then  when  the  bell  summoned  you  into  the  schoolroom, 
how  narrowly  you  watched  for  some  sign  of  defect  or 

7 


8  THE.^KAQHE.3*  THE, SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

weakness!  And  at  last,  when  you  hastened  home  at 
night,  there  was  not  a  child  who  had  not  a  definite  answer 
to  his  parents'  question,  "What  do  you  think  of  your  new 
teacher?"  Children  are  good  judges  of  human  nature, 
and  you  know  you  were  seldom  mistaken  in  your  first 
estimate.  This  recollection  of  your  own  experience  as  a 
pupil  should  lead  you  to  spare  no  pains  to  make  the  first 
day  in  the  schoolroom  the  most  successful  of  the  year. 

A  teacher  was  once  engaged  to  teach  in  a  country  district 
several  miles  from  her  home.  She  was  not  acquainted  in 
the  neighborhood,  and  knew  nothing  of  the  reputation  of 
the  school  until  it  was  announced  that  she  was  to  teach 
there.  Then  her  friends  and  acquaintances  began  to  tell 
her  all  sorts  of  stories,  both  true  and  false.  They  said 
that  the  children  were  ungovernable,  that  the  last  three 
teachers  had  actually  been  driven  away,  and  many  other 
things  equally  disconcerting.  For  a  tune  she  regretted 
taking  the  school;  but  she  was  not  easily  discouraged,  and 
determined  that  she,  at  least,  would  not  be  defeated. 

She  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  and  thought  in  preparing 
for  the  new  work.  She  wished  very  much  to  call  upon  the 
patrons  in  her  new  field,  but  being  unable  to  do  so,  she 
contented  herself  by  going  very  early  to  the  schoolroom  on 
the  first  morning.  She  had  previously  visited  the  room, 
and  had  then  called  upon  the  president  of  the  board,  re- 
questing him  to  make  some  repairs.  He  had  cheerfully 
consented  to  do  this,  and  so  she  found  everything  in 
excellent  condition. 

She  busied  herself  for  an  hour  in  putting  things  about 
her  desk  hi  order,  arranging  books  and  the  few  pictures 
which  she  had  brought,  placing  copy  work  upon  the  board, 


BEGINNING  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR  9 

and  getting  things  ready  for  the  pupils.  She  had  taken  the 
register  and  class  records  home  with  her  after  her  first 
visit,  and  by  careful  study  had  been  able  to  make  a  speci- 
men program  which  she  thought  might  serve  temporarily. 
She  had  just  finished  writing  this  upon  the  board  when  a 
group  of  children  entered. 

For  the  next  hour,  she  moved  about  among  them,  talking 
pleasantly,  and  by  nine  o'clock  she  felt  that  she  had  made 
some  friends  and  created  a  feeling  of  good  fellowship.  At 
first  her  friendly  advances  were  received  very  stiffly. 
Evidently  the  pupils  were  not  used  to  being  treated  as 
companions,  and  they  eyed  her  in  surprise;  but  soon  they 
were  ready  to  meet  her  more  than  half  way,  and  several 
times  during  the  hour  she  overheard  snatches  of  favorable 
comment. 

Promptly  at  nine  o'clock  she  rang  the  bell,  and  as  soon 
as  the  pupils  were  seated,  she  called  upon  one  of  the  older 
girls,  who  she  had  learned  was  organist  for  the  church 
services  held  in  the  building  every  Sunday,  to  take  the 
place  at  the  organ.  They  sang  "America,"  but  the  result 
was  far  from  satisfactory,  as  not  more  than  half  a  dozen 
voices  joined  in.  Then  the  teacher  addressed  the  children, 
saying  that  with  their  help  she  hoped  to  make  that  term 
of  school  highly  successful.  She  pointed  out  to  them  her 
one  rule  which  she  had  framed  and  hung  above  the  black- 
board behind  the  table.  It  was  very  short:  "Do  right." 
She  then  told  them  a  good  story,  after  which  they  sang 
a  familiar  working  song. 

The  teacher  had  prepared  busy  work  for  each  grade,  and 
soon  every  pupil  was  provided  with  something  to  do.  Then 
she  moved  quietly  about,  keeping  a  watchful  eye  over  all, 


10         THE  TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

taking  the  names,  and  arranging  the  classes  for  that  session. 
As  soon  as  any  pupil  showed  signs  of  neglecting  his  work  and 
getting  into  mischief,  she  promptly  called  at  his  seat  and 
inspected  his  work.  If  it  was  well  done,  she  praised  his 
efforts  and  supplied  him  with  other  employment;  if  it  was 
poorly  done,  she  requested  him  firmly  but  kindly  to  try 
again.  Supplied  with  the  right  kind  of  work  before  they 
had  time  to  provide  a  wrong  one,  most  of  the  pupils  settled 
busily  to  work,  and  it  was  time  for  recess  before  they  were 
aware  of  it.  She  avoided  administering  reproof  in  public, 
and  so  only  the  very  few  of  the  pupils  she  had  reproved 
knew  that  she  had  whispered  gentle  reminders.  In  all  cases, 
the  hint  was  effectual.  As  she  sat  wearily  in  her  chair  at 
recess,  she  wondered  if  she  would  be  able  to  maintain  this 
strict  watch  until  the  necessity  for  it  should  no  longer 
exist. 

The  session  after  recess  was  devoted  to  reading  and 
history.  As  there  were  about  thirty-six  pupils  studying 
reading,  she  could  not  possibly  pronounce  words  for  all;  so 
she  asked  a  bright  young  girl  in  the  fifth  grade  to  pronounce 
words  for  her  in  the  four  lower  grades,  adding  that  each 
pupil  must  make  three  copies  of  each  word,  thus  preventing 
any  fun  over  asking  words.  By  having  a  helper  passing 
about  the  room,  she  herself  was  able  to  give  her  entire 
attention  to  the  classes  and  to  maintain  a  general  watch 
over  all.  The  session  passed  fairly  well.  About  11:20 
when  the  pupils  were  becoming  restless,  she  had  them  lay 
aside  their  work  and  practice  for  a  few  minutes  the  first 
stanza  of  a  lively  motion  song  which  she  had  written  upon 
the  board.  Then  she  told  them  an  interesting  story,  and 
all  turned  to  their  work  again  refreshed  and  eager. 


BEGINNING  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR  II 

In  this  way  the  first  day  and  many  other  days  passed. 
There  were  times  when  affairs  did  not  glide  so  smoothly, 
but  the  rebellions  were  few  and  of  short  duration.  At 
the  close  of  a  month,  she  had  the  satisfaction  of  hearing 
one  of  the  older  girls,  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  directors, 
say  to  her:  "I  told  pa  when  I  went  home  the  first  day  that 
we  had  got  a  teacher  this  time.  We  all  agreed  before  you 
had  been  here  half  a  day  that  we  would  have  to  come  to 
time.  Ben  said  before  school  that  morning  that  he 
guessed  we  had  got  to  the  end  of  our  rope,  but  I  told  him 
let's  begin  with  all  our  old  tricks  and  see  what  you  would 
say.  So  we  did,  but  we  didn't  try  very  long  because  we 
knew  it  wouldn't  do  any  good:  besides  you're  the  only 
teacher  we  ever  had  who  treated  us  as  though  it  rested 
with  us  to  make  the  school  good.  I  thought  that  was  the 
teacher's  business." 

Let  us,  then,  begin  the  year's  work  with  well-laid  plans, 
and  resolve  to  keep  the  pupils  so  busy  that  they  will  not 
have  time  to  think  of  mischief.  The  following  rules  will 
be  found  of  material  help: 

Make  the  schoolroom  homelike  and  pleasant.  Interest 
the  children  in  the  decorations,  and  in  collecting  specimens 
for  the  various  cabinets  and  for  the  satisfying  of  their 
own  curiosity. 

Consider  your  scholars  as  reasonable  and  intelligent 
beings,  and,  in  correcting  faults,  take  such  a  course  as  will 
promote  cheerfulness  and  a  disposition  to  try  to  amend. 

Reproof  should  be  administered  kindly  and  very  seldom 
in  public.  Never  manifest  anger,  but  show  firmness  and 
decision.  Be  very  slow  to  believe  that  a  pupil  has  done 
wrong,  and  never  compare  one  child  with  another. 


12    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

If  a  child  is  indolent,  exercise  ingenuity  to  occupy  him 
pleasantly  in  some  useful  employment,  and  then  commend 
him  for  his  industry. 

Remember  that  a  little  " thank  you"  is  not  out  of  place 
in  the  schoolroom. 

"Do  right"  is  the  only  rule  necessary  to  give  the  pupils. 
This  allows  the  teacher  the  largest  discretionary  power. 
All  children  have  a  fairly  well-defined  sense  of  right  and 
wrong.  Don't  worry  pupils  with  one  hundred  little  rules 
concerning  the  things  they  must  or  must  not  do. 

Don't  be  hasty  and  impatient,  or  let  little  wrongs  pass 
unnoticed. 

Don't  tell  pupils  to  do  a  thing,  and  change  your  mind 
before  they  begin.  They  will  never  thoroughly  under- 
stand you  at  this  rate. 

Determine  to  succeed,  and  be  not  easily  discouraged. 

Work  away! 

For  the  Master's  eye  is  on  us, 
Never  off  us,  still  upon  us, 

Night  and  day. 

Work  away! 

Keep  the  busy  fingers  plying, 
Keep  the  ceaseless  shuttles  flying; 
See  that  never  thread  be  wrong; 
Let  not  clash  or  clatter  round  us, 
Sound  of  whirring  wheels  confound  us; 
Steady  hand!  let  woof  be  strong 
And  firm,  that  has  to  last  so  long! 
Workaway! 


CHAPTER  II 
SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT 

Order  is  heaven's  first  law,  and  it  is  scarcely  more  essen- 
tial to  the  peace  and  harmony  there,  than  it  is  to  the 
happiness  and  success  of  a  school.  If,  then,  order  is  of  so 
much  importance,  the  ability  to  secure  and  maintain  it 
must  be  one  of  the  essential  qualifications  of  a  good  teacher. 
Many  fail  in  government;  and  this  failure  can  usually  be 
traced  to  some  defect  in  the  mental  or  moral  culture  of  the 
teacher.  Let  us  consider  some  requisites  for  good  government. 

"  He  that  reigns  within  himself  and  rules  passions,  desires, 
and  fears,  is  more  than  king/'1  The  teacher  who  is  not 
complete  master  of  herself  will  certainly  fail  to  master 
others.  Often  her  patience  will  be  most  severely  tried  in 
school;  in  fact,  she  cannot  expect  the  current  of  affairs  to 
run  smoothly  for  a  single  day.  She  should  be  prepared  for 
this,  and  thus  be  able  to  master  her  temper;  for  nothing 
will  weaken  authority  so  much  as  an  exhibition  of  anger. 
If  she  finds  she  cannot  exercise  this  self-control,  she  should 
seek  other  employment,  for  she  is  certainly  unfit  to  be 
entrusted  with  the  training  of  children. 

Having  gained  self-command,  let  the  teacher  next  con- 
sider her  manner.  Some  teachers  are  so  frivolous  with  their 
pupils  that  they  can  never  command  with  authority  or 
gain  respect.  There  are  others  who  are  constantly  finding 
fault,  scolding,  and  nagging.  Such  teachers  cannot  hope 

1  Henry  Calderwood. 

13 


14         THE  TEACHER,  1*HE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

to  gain  the  affection  of  their  pupils;  and  without  securing 
this,  government  will  not  be  of  the  right  kind.  The 
teacher  should  endeavor  to  cultivate  the  true  spirit  of 
kindness  and  a  desire  to  be  useful.  Courtesy  as  well  as 
dignity  is  essential.  "We  must  be  as  courteous  to  a  child 
as  to  a  picture;  give  it  the  advantage  of  the  best  light."1 

Much  depends  on  making  the  pupils  feel  that  the  rules 
and  regulations  are  for  their  own  good,  and  not  to  gratify 
the  whims  or  caprices  of  the  teacher.  Most  pupils  really 
prefer  order  to  disorder,  and  they  do  not  respect  the  teacher 
who  fails  to  maintain  authority.  One  object  of  discipline 
is  to  secure  a  sufficient  degree  of  order  and  quietness  to 
enable  the  pupils  to  pursue  their  studies  without  inter- 
ruption; but  the  higher  aim  is  to  train  the  will,  and  teach 
the  pupils  self-control.  Cheerful  obedience,  respect  for 
law  and  order,  a  hearty  acquiescence  in  whatever  is  good  for 
the  entire  number,  are  characteristics  of  a  school  which  is 
well  governed. 

The  management  of  the  school  requires  both  tact  and 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Tact,  in  gaining  the 
necessary  confidence  and  good  will  of  the  parents,  involves 
a  large  amount  of  common  sense;  for  parents  do  not 
always  see  their  children's  faults  as  the  teacher  does.  The 
management  must  be  firm  and  unvarying;  there  must  be 
the  same  spirit  and  the  same  requirements  every  day  of 
the  term.  If  a  teacher  punishes  to-day  what  she  tolerates 
to-morrow,  she  cannot  expect  obedience.  The  teacher 
who  said  to  her  pupils:  "I've  got  a  bad  headache,  and  you 
had  better  all  look  out  to-day  for  I  feel  very  cross,"  might 
better  have  dismissed  her  pupils  until  she  felt  able  to  teach 

i  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  1 5 

them.  Quite  often  the  pupils  have  to  suffer  because  the 
teacher  has  indigestion,  or  has  been  out  late,  or  is  feeling 
somewhat  indisposed. 

Always  convince  your  pupils  that  you  mean  what  you 
say;  but  if  you  punish  them,  by  no  means  give  them  any 
chance  to  feel  the  undercurrent,  "I'll  show  you  that  I  mean 
to  have  my  way." 

Observe  the  strictest  impartiality.  Each  child  has  a 
right  to  the  best  which  the  school  affords  in  government  as 
well  as  instruction.  One  cannot  help  liking  a  bright-faced, 
neatly-dressed  little  boy  with  clean  hands  and  face  better 
than  an  unmannerly  urchin  with  black  hands,  grimy  face, 
and  uncombed  hair.  Yet,  if  a  teacher  wishes  to  succeed, 
she  must  be  very  careful  not  to  show  this  preference. 
Each  child  has  a  soul,  and  the  teacher  is  responsible  to  the 
Great  Teacher  for  the  way  in  which  she  attempts  to  mold 
it.  Few  teachers  realize  the  importance  of  their  work. 

In  almost  every  school  there  are  pupils  who  are  backward 
or  dull,  or  who  may  have  some  physical  defect.  The 
teacher  should  be  very  careful  in  the  treatment  of  such 
pupils.  She  should  try  to  enter  into  the  feelings  of  their 
parents;  encourage  rather  than  crush  them.  One  teacher 
had  in  her  schoolroom  two  children  who  could  not  speak 
plainly.  Their  talk  was  almost  unintelligible.  For  this 
failing,  which  was  a  misfortune  rather  than  a  fault,  the 
teacher  punished  them  in  various  ways.  She  even  resorted 
to  whipping  when  other  means  failed.  Such  treatment  not 
only  failed  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  but  made  those 
children  despise  her  and  everything  connected  with  school 
work.  It  also  weakened  her  authority  over  the  other 
pupils,  and  she  therefore  failed  to  govern  the  school. 


1 6         THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Above  all,  a  teacher  must  be  a  scholar,  and  if  she  is  to  be 
a  teacher  of  real  power,  she  must  have  wide  and  accurate 
scholarship.  "  It  is  the  man  who  takes  in  who  can  give  out. 
The  man  who  does  not  do  the  one  soon  takes  to  spinning 
his  own  fancies  out  of  his  interior,  like  a  spider,  and  he 
ensnares  himself  at  last  as  well  as  his  victims."1 

The  teacher  should  thoroughly  know  and  understand 
what  she  expects  to  teach.  She  should  go  to  her  class  so 
full  of  her  subject  that  if  she  were  deprived  of  the  textbook 
she  could  conduct  the  recitation  without  difficulty.  Im- 
agine a  teacher  of  geography  trying  to  hear  a  recitation 
with  a  finger  on  the  map,  and  as  soon  as  she  asks  a  question, 
starting  out  to  find  the  answer.  It  seems  ridiculous,  but 
how  often  is  this  very  thing  seen  in  the  schoolroom.  Study 
diligently  that  you  may  be  able  to  teach  with  enthusiasm 
and  power;  remember  that  it  is  the  master  who  makes  the 
school. 

Having  considered  the  five  things  that  distinguish  a 
good  teacher  —  character,  sympathy,  firmness,  common 
sense,  and  knowledge  —  let  us  discuss  some  methods  of 
securing  good  order. 

First  of  all,  be  careful  of  the  early  impressions  that  you 
make.  Begin  as  you  expect  to  hold  out.  Be  natural; 
children  are  good  readers  of  character  and  are  quick  to  see 
through  a  mask  of  affectation.  If  you  wish  to  win  the  love 
of  children,  you  must  first  gain  their  respect.  If  you  have 
been  told  before  beginning  a  school  that  certain  pupils  are 
bad  characters,  that  you  must  watch  them  or  they  will  give 
you  trouble,  remember  it  if  you  must,  but  don't  let  them  find 
out  that  you  suspect  them.  Treat  them  the  same  as  the  other 

1  Dr.  John  Brown. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT  17 

pupils;  try  to  win  their  affection.     In  nine  cases  out  of  ten 
they  will  give  you  no  trouble. 

A  teacher  once  taught  a  country  school  that  had  the 
reputation  of  being  a  "bad  one."  The  director  told  her 
that  if  she  could  get  along  with  two  of  the  pupils,  a  boy  and 
a  girl,  she  would  have  no  trouble,  as  those  two  controlled 
the  school.  The  first  morning  came;  she  had  no  difficulty 
in  recognizing  the  two.  The  girl,  or  young  lady  as  she 
might  have  been  called  had  her  actions  been  ladylike, 
marched  boldly  into  the  schoolroom,  removed  hat,  jacket, 
and  rubbers,  threw  them  on  a  seat,  and  then  ordered  one 
of  the  little  girls  to  carry  them  into  the  hall.  She  kept 
three  or  four  little  girls  busy  waiting  on  her  for  some  time. 
In  response  to  the  teacher's  "Good  morning,"  she  gave  a 
cool  stare  and  an  unintelligible  mutter. 

Nothing  daunted,  the  teacher  sat  down  by  her,  made 
some  remarks  about  the  pleasant  weather,  and  then 
asked  about  the  classes,  the  number  of  pupils  in  each,  and 
the  books  that  were  used.  At  first  the  girl  bristled  like  a 
porcupine,  gave  the  briefest  of  answers,  and  watched  the 
teacher  narrowly;  finally,  as  she  was  made  to  feel  quite  at 
ease,  she  answered  more  civilly.  In  a  few  minutes  the 
teacher  left  her  and  went  about  some  work,  knowing  all 
the  time  that  her  slightest  movement  was  being  watched 
and  that  once  or  twice  some  of  the  other  pupils  had  been 
prompted  to  do  something  annoying.  She  felt  a  little 
relieved  when  she  heard  the  girl  say  to  the  boy  when  he 
entered:  "Bet  a  cooky,  Jim,  we've  got  a  teacher  that 
knows  something  this  time." 

A  loud  laugh  was  the  answer  of  this  overgrown  boy  of 
fifteen  as  he  swaggered  across  the  room. 


1 8    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

"Mornin',"  he  called  as  he  passed  the  teacher's  desk. 

"Good  morning,"  returned  the  teacher,  "I'm  glad  you 
have  come.  I  was  in  need  of  some  one  to  help  move  seats." 

He  gazed  impudently  at  her  with  open  mouth.  She 
paid  no  attention  to  him,  but  pointed  out  the  seats  to  be 
moved.  He  hesitated  a  minute  and  then  went  to  work. 
She  kept  him  busy  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  hour  and 
then  thanked  him  for  the  way  he  had  done  the  work. 
A  short  time  after,  through  the  open  window,  she  heard  him 
reply  to  a  small  boy:  "She's  a  brick;  and  you'd  better 
'tend  to  lessons  or  you'll  get  your  jacket  tanned!" 

For  a  month  or  more  the  teacher  had  to  maintain  a  pretty 
close  watch  over  these  two,  but  after  that  they  caused  her 
no  trouble  and  she  could  not  have  wished  for  better  pupils. 
She  had  managed  to  win  their  affections  and  to  create  in 
them  a  desire  for  improvement.  Under  her  careful  guid- 
ance they  fitted  themselves  for  country  school  diplomas,  and 
both  entered  a  neighboring  high  school.  Later  the  young 
man  took  the  short  course  at  his  State  University,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  practical,  up-to-date  young  farm- 
ers of  his  section.  The  girl  was  graduated  from  a  busi- 
ness college  and  is  to-day  a  successful  business  woman. 

The  pleasure  which  comes  from  well-doing  because  it  is 
right  should  be  constantly  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  Teach- 
ers should  always  encourage  truthfuhiess.  There  is  a 
conventional  sense  of  honor  among  schoolboys  which  binds 
them  not  to  inform  the  teacher  of  the  misdeeds  of  their 
mates.  The  wise  teacher  uses  tact  in  modifying  the 
school  code  so  as  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction  between  minor 
matters  that  belong  to  the  tattling  order,  and  the  graver 
offenses  that  concern  the  welfare  of  the  school. 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  1 9 

Among  the  many  enemies  of  good  order  may  be  men- 
tioned whispering,  idleness,  litter  on  desks  and  floor,  class 
interruptions,  unnecessary  questioning,  general  confusion 
in  studying  and  in  moving  about  the  room.  Since  the 
organization  of  the  first  school,  teachers  have,  at  times, 
found  difficulty  in  settling  these  questions.  Here  are  some 
devices  that  have  been  tried  and  proved  successful. 

1.  Deportment.     If  you  are  teaching  in  the  lower  grades, 
and  wish  to  abolish  that  " whispering  bugbear,"   draw 
along  the  top  of  the  blackboard  a  five-pointed  star  for  each 
pupil.     Each  point  represents  a  school  day.     At  the  close 
of  each  day,  call  the  roll;  if  any  one  is  imperfect,  color  the 
point  in  his  star  that  represents  that  day.     The  pupils, 
having  a  natural  desire  to  appear  well  in  each  other's  eyes, 
will  strive  earnestly  to  keep  their  stars  bright.     Should 
there  be  a  pupil  who  does  not  care  for  public  opinion,  who 
allows  all  the  points  of  his  star  to  become  colored,  he  must 
be  punished  in  some  way. 

In  advanced  grades,  the  following  plan  has  been  very 
successful.  Watch  any  pupil  who  idles  away  his  time, 
and  enter  the  number  of  minutes  which  he  loses  opposite 
his  name  in  the  class  book.  When  the  minutes  amount 
to  ten,  require  him  to  make  up  the  time  at  recess. 
Assign  a  sufficiently  hard  task  so  that  he  will  not  care  to 
repeat  it. 

2.  For  idleness,  a  very  simple  remedy  usually  effects  a 
cure.     If  a  child  will  not  work  in  school  time,  let  him  under- 
stand that  he  must  work  while  the  others  play.     Do  not 
merely  require  him  to  keep  his  seat;  see  that  he  uses  his 
tune  properly.     Of  course,  there  are  extreme  cases  which 
cannot  be  reached  by  this  plan. 


20    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

The  "star"  plan  has  also  been  successfully  tried  for  the 
prevention  of  idleness.  For  example,  suppose  that  the 
pupils  of  the  first  grade  are  endeavoring  to  read  as  perfectly 
as  possible.  Each  pupil  should  have  a  five-pointed  star. 
Every  mistake  makes  a  cross  in  the  point  for  that  day. 
Five  crosses  destroy  a  point,  and  it  must  be  erased.  In- 
stead of  allowing  pupils  to  ask  to  have  unknown  words 
pronounced,  have  each  pass  to  the  board  and  write  the 
word  under  his  star.  As  soon  as  the  class  is  called,  pro- 
nounce the  words  and  drill  upon  them  for  a  few  minutes. 
For  a  part  of  the  next  lesson,  each  pupil  must  be  required 
to  spell  the  words  written  under  his  star.  At  the  end  of 
the  week,  the  pupils  who  have  whole  stars  should  be  allowed 
some  favor.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  allow  them  to  have  a 
"play  afternoon"  Friday.  They  should  be  excused  from 
regular  lessons,  and  be  permitted  to  do  paper  cutting,  weav- 
ing, drawing,  and  similar  recreations. 

The  following  is  a  simple  device  which  will  be  of  interest 
to  small  pupils.  Draw  a  beehive  upon  the  board.  Have  a 
talk  with  the  pupils  about  bees,  dwelling  at  some  length 
upon  the  workers  and  the  drones.  Then  suggest  that  they 
pretend  the  schoolroom  is  a  hive.  Tell  them  that  they  may 
be  the  workers  and  drones,  and  that  you  will  be  the  queen 
and  direct  their  work.  Then  tell  them  that  you  will  write 
the  names  of  the  drones  in  the  lower  part  of  the  hive,  while 
the  busiest  bees  will  have  their  names  at  the  top.  This 
will  create  much  interest  and  the  children  will  work  hard 
to  get  their  names  at  the  top  of  the  hive. 

3.  For  neatness.  In  the  primary  grades,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  draw  a  dustpan  upon  the  board.  Tell  the  children  that 
it  is  for  the  pupils  who  do  not  keep  their  desks  and  the  floor 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  21 

near  them  neat  and  clean.  Then,  if  any  one  leaves  his 
desk  in  confusion,  or  scatters  paper  on  the  floor,  or  brings 
in  mud,  put  his  name  in  the  dustpan.  In  the  advanced 
grades,  a  few  general  talks  on  neatness,  and  a  private  per- 
sonal reminder  to  those  in  need,  will  usually  be  effectual. 
It  should  always  be  understood  that  if  any  one  makes  un- 
necessary litter  about  his  desk,  he  must  sweep  it  up. 
Teachers  are  often  inclined  to  neglect  these  things,  espe- 
cially if  they  do  not  have  to  do  the  janitor  work.  This 
ought  not  to  be;  nothing  spoils  the  appearance  of  a  room  so 
much  as  a  litter  of  dust,  pencil  scrapings,  and  torn  papers. 
The  principles  of  good  housekeeping  are  just  as  necessary 
in  the  schoolroom  as  in  the  home. 

4.  Interruptions.  Pupils  should  be  allowed  the  largest 
liberty  possible  without  infringing  on  the  rights  of  others. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  pupils  to  request  permission  to  drink, 
to  leave  the  room,  or  to  attend  to  other  schoolroom  duties. 
They  should  have  perfect  freedom  so  long  as  they  respect 
their  privilege.  Abuse  of  any  privilege  should  always  be 
followed  by  privation.  Pupils  should  be  expected  to  attend 
to  such  things  after  the  five  minute  bell  at  recess  rings. 
They  will  willingly  do  this  if  they  are  requested  and  en- 
couraged to  do  so.  If  pupils  are  troublesome  about  leaving 
the  room,  require  them  to  register  their  names  on  the  black- 
board and  in  some  cases  to  make  up  two  or  three  minutes 
at  recess. 

Teachers  should  not  allow  pupils  to  interrupt  during 
class  periods.  In  the  lower  grades,  where  it  is  hard  for 
pupils  to  study  without  more  or  less  assistance,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  appoint  one  of  the  older  pupils  as  helper  for  a  session. 
The  helper  should  pass  quietly  about  the  room  giving  such 


22         THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

assistance  as  is  necessary.  Of  course  this  helper  should 
not  be  expected  to  help  those  in  the  same  grade.  The 
helper  should  always  be  chosen  from  the  pupils  who  have 
had  the  best  lessons,  or  who  have  been  the  highest  in  de- 
portment. Pupils  will  think  this  quite  a  privilege,  and  will 
put  forth  a  good  deal  of  effort  to  become  a  helper. 

5-  Avoiding  confusion.  Whenever  possible,  the  pupils 
should  be  seated  in  grades  so  that  it  will  not  be  necessary 
for  them  to  change  their  places  to  recite.  If  the  class  is 
seated,  when  a  pupil  is  called  upon  to  recite  he  should 
stand.  This  develops  self-confidence  and  more  fully 
attracts  the  attention  of  the  class.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
have  plenty  of  written  work  in  connection  with  the  recita- 
tion, allowing  a  part  or  all  of  the  pupils  to  recite  from 
the  blackboard. 

There  are  so  many  ways  of  conducting  a  recitation  and 
presenting  the  different  subjects  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  make  more  than  a  passing  mention  of  them.  No  live 
teacher  need  fail  frequently  to  surprise  her  class  with  a 
new  method  of  conducting  a  recitation.  Many  boarding- 
house  keepers  through  lack  of  originality  fail  to  please  their 
patrons.  They  prepare  the  same  thing  in  the  same  way 
day  after  day;  and  no  matter  how  palatable  a  dish  may  be, 
one  grows  tired  of  seeing  it  too  often.  The  same  is  equally 
true  in  teaching;  teachers  must  vary  their  plan  of  doing 
things.  Children  will  soon  become  tired  of  a  teacher  who 
has  one  and  only  one  way  of  going  at  things.  When  stu- 
dents complain  that  they  do  not  like  to  go  to  school,  it  is 
usually  quite  certain  that  their  teacher  lacks  originality 
and  the  skill  to  arouse  a  lively  interest  in  them.  Aim  to 
keep  them  awake  and  on  the  lookout.  The  arrangement 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  23 

and  length  of  recitations  are  matters  of  judgment  to  be 
modified  according  to  conditions.  When  one  class  is  re- 
citing, be  sure  that  the  others  have  something  to  do  and 
that  they  do  it.  If  the  school  is  a  large  one,  do  not  attempt 
to  hear  daily  recitations  in  everything,  but  alternate  the 
studies  of  the  more  advanced  pupils.  Economize  time 
and  instruction  by  means  of  as  many  general  exercises  as 
possible,  in  which  all  except  the  youngest  pupils  can  join; 
such  as  drill  exercises  in  the  fundamental  operations,  mental 
arithmetic  exercises,  the  spelling  of  common  words,  short 
compositions,  minute  speeches,  review  questions  on  the 
leading  facts  of  geography  and  history. 

Chief  of  the  teacher's  mottoes  should  be,  "A  time  for 
everything,  and  everything  in  its  time."  Teaching  under 
such  circumstances  becomes  a  delightful  employment. 


CHAPTER  III 
SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS 

"  Punishment  is  pain  inflicted  upon  the  mind  or  body 
of  an  individual  by  the  authority  to  which  he  is  subject, 
with  a  view  either  to  reform  him,  or  to  deter  others  from 
the  commission  of  offenses,  or  both/'1  It  is  necessary  for 
the  inflicter  of  punishment  to  have  one  of  these  worthy 
objects  in  view.  Punishment  for  the  sake  of  retaliation  is 
not  punishment;  it  is  revenge. 

Punishments  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  those 
which  address  themselves  directly  to  the  mind,  as  privation 
from  privileges  and  loss  of  liberty,  and  those  which  address 
the  mind  through  the  body,  as  requiring  the  pupil  to  take 
some  painful  attitude,  inflicting  bodily  chastisement,  and 
the  like. 

With  the  above  classification  in  mind,  let  us  first  con- 
sider some  of  the  improper  modes  of  punishment.  There 
are  some  punishments  which  are  always  wrong;  such  as 
pulling  the  ears,  striking  the  pupil  over  the  head,  or  pulling 
the  hair.  A  pupil  must  love  his  teacher  very  much  to  be 
able  to  control  his  temper  at  such  insults.  Possibly  in  one 
case  hi  a  hundred  such  treatment  might  induce  the  pupil 
to  reform,  but  in  the  other  ninety-nine  the  seeds  of  rank 
rebellion  would  be  sown.  The  very  mode  of  punishment 
leads  the  pupil,  not  to  consider  that  he  has  interfered  with 
the  best  interests  of  others,  but  to  dwell  upon  the  insult 
1  David  P.  Page. 

24 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  2$ 

offered  to  his  person,  and  creates  in  him  a  desire  to  get  even 
with  that  teacher.  Then,  there  are  those  old-time  punish- 
ments, which,  as  we  rarely  see  them  now,  deserve  only  a 
passing  thought,  such  as  holding  a  nail  in  the  floor,  sitting 
on  nothing,  or  holding  a  heavy  book  at  arm's  length.  Such 
punishments  could  never  produce  good  results.  The 
pupil  might  submit,  and  he  might  abstain  from  similar 
offenses,  but  it  would  be  the  submission  of  self-preser- 
vation, not  of  penitence. 

Ridicule  is  another  weapon  that  should  never  be  used. 
It  often  causes  more  pain  than  he  who  uses  it  imagines; 
especially  if  some  physical  defect  or  mental  incapacity  is 
used  as  the  subject.  It  is  the  modest,  conscientious  child 
that  is  most  affected.  Indolent  and  vicious  children  are 
usually  hardened  by  ridicule.  Another  strong  objection 
is  the  feeling  it  induces  between  pupil  and  teacher.  The 
teacher,  conscious  that  he  has  injured  the  child,  will  find  it 
hard  to  love  him;  while  the  child  loses  his  confidence  in  the 
teacher,  who  should  be  his  best  friend  in  the  school.  The 
strongest  objection  of  all  to  the  use  of  ridicule  is  the  feeling 
it  calls  forth  in  the  school.  Those  who  participate  in  the 
laugh  thus  excited  are  under  the  influence  of  no  very 
amiable  motives.  And,  where  this  is  carried  so  far  as  to 
allow  the  schoolmates  of  the  pupil  to  hiss  and  point  their 
fingers  in  scorn,  the  most  deplorable  spirit  of  self-righteous- 
ness is  cultivated. 

The  entire  school  should  never  be  punished  for  the  faults 
of  a  few.  To  deprive  the  room  of  the  recess  or  to  detain 
everyone  after  school  is  never  wise.  If  a  fault  has  been 
committed  and  you  are  not  sharp  enough  to  single  out  the 
culprits,  let  it  pass  with  as  little  notice  as  possible. 


26         THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,    AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Another  very  familiar  mode  of  punishment,  and  perhaps 
the  worst  of  all,  is  the  continual  nagging,  faultfinding, 
threatening,  and  scolding  in  which  some  teachers  are  prone 
to  indulge.  There  is  a  physiological  law  that  the  exercise 
of  any  organ  will  give  it  greater  development.  It  follows 
then,  that  those  who  once  begin  to  scold  are  fortunate  if 
they  stop  short  of  high  attainment  in  the  art.  Usually, 
too,  the  more  a  child  is  scolded  the  harder  his  heart  becomes. 
A  blacksmith  who  had  been  accustomed  to  scold  his  family, 
was  one  day  attempting  to  harden  a  piece  of  steel;  but 
failing  after  two  or  three  attempts,  his  son  who  had  been 
Watching  him  exclaimed,  "  Scold  it,  father,  scold  it;  if  that 
won't  harden  it,  nothing  else  will!"  The  ability  to  control 
the  "unruly  member"  is  a  virtue  which  every  teacher 
should  cultivate. 

Every  teacher's  mind  should  be  settled  as  to  what  punish- 
ments are  proper,  so  that,  when  they  are  administered,  it 
can  be  done  with  an  honest  conviction  of  the  performance 
of  duty.  Among  proper  punishments,  the  following  may 
be  mentioned: 

1.  Kind  reproof  administered  in  private.     There  is  an 
objection  to  reproving  the  pupil  publicly,  on  the  ground 
that  the  pupil's  natural  spirit  of  obstinacy  will  rise  to  resist 
this  show  of  authority.     Many  a  bad  boy  or  girl  has  been 
reformed  by  a  kind  talk  from  the  teacher  in  private,  for 
such  talks  are  rarely  forgotten. 

2.  Loss  of  privileges.    If  a  pupil  abuses  his  privileges  it 
is  certainly  right  to  deprive  him  of  them.     Thus,  if  a  pupil 
will  not  work  in  school  hours,  it  is  only  fair  that  he  be 
required  to  complete  his  task  while  others  are  at  play.     If 
he  is  boisterous  and  rude,  interfering  with  the  pleasures 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  27 

of  others  at  recess,  he  should  be  required  to  take  his  recess 
alone. 

3.  Let  the  punishment  be  a  continuation  of  the  offense. 

This  is  sometimes  the  best  punishment  of  all.  The  pupil 
cannot  possibly  complain  that  he  is  not  judged  fairly. 
For  instance,  if  a  child  forgets  to  keep  his  seat,  and  stands 
beside  his  desk,  or  gets  upon  his  knees  or  lies  down,  as 
many  children  do,  require  him  to  maintain  that  position 
long  enough  to  impress  his  fault  clearly  upon  his  mind. 
A  boy  who  had  the  bad  habit  of  playing  mumble-peg  on 
the  floor  behind  his  seat  whenever  the  teacher's  back 
was  turned,  was  completely  cured  by  being  required  to 
play  the  whole  of  one  session  in  plain  view  of  his  school- 
mates. 

Another  boy  seemed  to  take  delight  in  torturing  others. 
One  day  his  teacher  saw  him  stick  the  boy  in  front  of  him 
with  a  pin.  The  boy  moved  away  from  him,  and  went  on 
with  his  lessons.  But  his  tormentor  followed  him  and 
again  applied  the  pin.  The  teacher  finished  the  recitation, 
quietly  dismissed  the  class,  and  then  asked  the  culprit  to 
come  to  her  desk.  He  came  rather  shamefaced;  he  did 
not  know  the  teacher  had  seen  him. 

"Charlie,"  she  said,  in  a  low  voice,  "did  I  not  see  you 
sticking  John  with  a  pin?" 

"Yes'm,"  said  Charlie. 

"What  did  you  do  it  for?" 

"For  fun,"  answered  Charlie. 

"I  did  not  know  that  was  fun,"  said  the  teacher.  "Let 
us  see!"  Taking  a  needle  from  a  sewing  card  on  the  desk, 
she  pricked  him  on  the  arm  once  or  twice. 

"Oh!"  exclaimed  Charlie,  shrinking  back. 


28    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

"It  is  fun,  isn't  it?"  said  the  teacher,  again  applying  the 
needle. 

"Oh,  Miss  Harvey,  don't!"  said  Charlie. 

"Very  well,  Charlie;  but  don't  you  think  it  is  fun?" 
said  Miss  Harvey,  putting  down  the  needle.  Then  she 
proceeded  to  talk  quietly  to  him.  In  a  few  minutes  he 
burst  into  tears.  No  one  ever  saw  him  torturing  another 
after  that. 

This  plan  is  applicable  in  many  ways;  for,  if  a  child  can 
be  brought  to  tears  from  grief  at  his  own  conduct,  and  not 
from  fear  of  punishment,  he  needs  no  chastisement. 

4.  Requiring  the  pupil  to  confess  his  faults  publicly  and 
request  the  forgiveness  of  the  one  wronged.     Great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  this  punishment,  as  it  may 
be  the  means  of  cultivating  hypocrisy  or  inducing  open 
rebellion.     As  an  illustration:  A  little  boy  had  broken  some 
of  his  cousin's  toys. 

"  Paul,  tell  Nellie  you  are  sorry,"  his  mother  commanded. 
Paul  stoutly  resisted. 

"If  you  do  not  I  shall  whip  you,"  said  his  mother. 
"Well,  Nellie,  I'm  sorry,"  snapped  Paul,  and  then  aside, 
"Don't  care;  I  ain't  sorry  either." 

5.  Corporal  punishment.    Advocating  the  use  of  the  rod 
under  any  circumstances   will  undoubtedly  raise  a  storm 
of  objections,  yet  when  all  other  means  have  failed   Solo- 
mon's sentiments  can  be  heartily  endorsed.     The  teacher 
should  be  particularly  careful  not  to  whip  a  child  unless  she 
is  certain  she  can  control  her  own  temper;  and  then,  she 
should  be  careful  to  use  a  proper  instrument,  and  a  proper 
mode  of  infliction;  and,  having  considerately  undertaken 
the  case,  it  should  be  so  thorough  as  not  to  need  repetition. 


SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  29 

If  the  pupil  is  at  fault  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
study  the  case.  In  school  government,  as  in  the  practice 
of  medicine,  too  much  cannot  be  said  about  a  proper 
diagnosis,  lest  the  wrong  remedies  be  applied.  The 
teacher  should  determine  whether  encouragement,  assist- 
ance, kind  reproof,  sharp  correction,  or  corporal  punish- 
ment is  needed;  and  in  any  case,  whether  the  remedy 
would  be  best  administered  publicly  or  privately. 

Quarles's  advice  to  parents  is  applicable  to  teachers  as 
well:  "Be  very  vigilant  over  the  child  in  the  April  of  his 
understanding,  lest  the  frost  of  May  nip  his  blossoms. 
While  he  is  a  tender  twig,  straighten  him;  while  he  is  a 
new  vessel,  season  him;  such  as  thou  makest  him,  such 
commonly  shalt  thou  find  him.  Let  his  first  lesson  be 
obedience,  and  his  second  shall  be  what  thou  wilt." 


CHAPTER  IV 
BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOLROOM 

All  the  surroundings  of  childhood  should  be  bright  and 
attractive.  Yet,  how  often  is  this  neglected  or  wholly 
disregarded!  It  is  not  a  difficult  task  to  brighten  up  a 
dingy  room,  if  the  teacher  is  willing  to  expend  a  little  tact, 
energy  and  labor. 

A  young  girl  contracted  to  teach  a  country  school  in 
Township  Ten.  As  it  was  her  first  term,  she  did  not  think 
to  visit  her  schoolroom  before  the  first  day  of  school.  She 
went  to  her  schoolhouse  alone,  humming  snatches  of  song 
all  the  way:  she  was  very  happy  for  she  was  about  to  begin 
the  first  chapter  in  her  dream  of  dreams.  Her  plans  were 
all  made  and  she  was  anticipating  a  pleasant  day;  but 
when  she  slipped  the  key  in  the  lock  and  pushed  open 
the  door,  her  dream  faded  and  the  song  died  from  her  lips. 

The  sight  which  met  her  eyes  unnerved  her.  The  room 
reeked  with  foul  air;  everything  was  covered  with  dust  and 
dirt.  The  floor  was  strewn  with  dead  flies,  bits  of  paper, 
and  moldy  slate  rags.  The  walls  and  curtainless  windows 
were  festooned  with  cobwebs;  the  blackboards  were  a  dingy 
gray;  and  the  chalk  trays  looked  as  though  they  had  never 
been  emptied. 

Only  for  a  few  moments  was  the  new  teacher  dismayed. 
She  hastily  placed  her  books  and  parcels  under  a  tree, 
knotted  her  handkerchief  over  her  hair,  pinned  up  her 
dress,  and  stepped  briskly  into  the  room.  She  found  a 

30 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOLROOM  31 

comparatively  new  broom  hanging  up  in  the  corner.  In  a 
few  minutes  she  had  freed  the  windows  of  cobwebs  and 
opened  them  wide  to  let  in  the  bright  sunshine  and  the  pure 
air.  After  brushing  the  flies  and  cobwebs  from  the  ceiling 
and  walls,  she  turned  her  attention  to  the  blackboards. 
The  chalk  trays  were  emptied;  the  blackboards  were  made 
to  look  as  clean  as  possible,  and  the  erasers  were  piled  outside 
the  door  to  await  the  coming  of  some  small  boy.  Then 
she  disposed  of  the  heterogeneous  mass  of  rubbish  that  had 
collected  about  the  teacher's  desk,  and  swept  the  floor 
carefully. 

Fortunately,  she  had  come  to  the  schoolhouse  early,  and 
there  was  still  an  hour  before  school  time.  Her  boarding 
house  was  only  a  short  distance  away,  and  she  returned  to 
get  some  wash  cloths  and  a  pail  of  water.  The  young 
daughter  of  the  house  returned  with  her,  and  together  they 
dusted  the  furniture,  washed  the  blackboards,  and  had 
just  begun  to  wash  the  windows  when  a  bevy  of  pupils 
entered.  They  stared  in  open-mouthed  surprise  at  the 
transformation  of  the  room,  and  the  occupation  of  the 
teacher.  She  greeted  them  pleasantly,  and  remarked  that 
she  thought  it  necessary  to  clean  the  windows  as  they  would 
want  light  on  the  subjects  they  were  to  study.  The  house- 
cleaning  spirit  was  contagious  and  in  a  few  minutes  all  the 
pupils  were  busy.  They  had  no  school  that  morning,  but 
at  noon  the  room  was  as  clean  as  soap  and  water  could 
make  it.  They  spent  their  nooning  under  a  big  tree  while 
the  floor  dried. 

The  afternoon  passed  all  too  soon.  United  by  the  bond 
of  common  interest  and  comradeship,  the  children  were 
ready  to  enter  into  the  school  work  with  as  much  zest  as 


32          THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

they  had  into  the  house  cleaning.  After  the  day's  work  had 
been  finished,  the  teacher,  tired  as  she  was,  walked  two  miles 
to  the  home  of  the  school  trustee,  and  succeeded  in  per- 
suading him  that  it  was  his  duty  to  get  new  shades  for  the 
windows,  some  towels,  a  water  pail,  a  dipper,  and  a  dust- 
pan. It  is  not  necessary  to  tell  how  that  teacher  and  pupils 
raised  money  to  buy  sash  and  blackboard  curtains,  or  to 
pay  for  having  the  floor  scrubbed  once  a  week;  neither  shall 
we  enter  into  details  as  to  how  they  decorated  their  school- 
room, founded  a  library,  and  purchased  several  pieces  of 
school  apparatus. 

Every  teacher  should  plan  these  things  for  herself; 
however,  we  would  not  advise  all  teachers  to  begin  the 
first  morning  by  cleaning  house.  We  would  advise,  though, 
that  they  visit  the  schoolroom  at  least  a  week  before  the 
beginning  of  the  term,  make  a  note  of  what  is  needed,  and 
visit  the  trustee  to  learn  his  intentions.  If  he  does  not 
know  what  his  duties  are,  the  teacher  should  tactfully 
explain,  and  he  will  usually  be  found  willing  to  do  his  part. 
If  for  any  reason  the  teacher  is  thrown  on  her  own  re- 
sources, she  will  do  well  to  emulate  the  young  girl  men- 
tioned; for  order  and  neatness  are  the  first  requisites  of 
comfort  and  cheerfulness  in  the  schoolroom. 

The  successful  teacher  who  said  she  made  her  school 
interesting  by  trying  to  make  it  homelike,  certainly  struck 
the  keynote.  Memory  recalls  to  us  a  white  schoolhouse 
on  the  hill,  where  the  teacher  tried  to  make  everything 
homelike.  She  even  had  a  pretty  table-spread  on  her  table, 
and  a  large  braided  rug  in  front  of  it.  There  were  several 
good  pictures,  and  a  rocking-chair  for  company;  and  we 
children  were  encouraged  to  bring  articles  that  would  be 


BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOLROOM  33 

useful  or  ornamental  in  the  room.  We  enjoyed  every  day 
of  school,  and  dearly  loved  pur  teacher.  But  we  were  not 
permitted  to  keep  her,  for  the  school  board  in  a  neighboring 
city  recognized  her  worth  and  offered  her  a  much  better 
salary  than  our  district  could  afford  to  pay. 

Teachers  and  pupils  may  decorate  then:  rooms  hand- 
somely with  very  little  expense.  Fresh  or  pressed  flowers, 
festoons  of  pine,  fringes  of  grasses  strung  by  knotting  upon 
cord,  banks  of  ferns,  trophies  of  cat-tails  and  rushes, 
wreaths,  and  similar  natural  growth  make  beautiful  and 
inexpensive  adornments.  Flags  and  bunting  make  appro- 
priate decorations.  Paper  chains,  bows  of  tissue  paper 
embodying  the  school  colors,  pine  cones,  tinsel  and  the 
like,  may  all  be  used  effectively.  Very  good  pictures  may 
now  be  purchased  at  little  cost.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  paste 
them  on  strips  of  manila  paper  and  tack  the  strips  around 
the  room  just  above  the  blackboard.  Inexpensive  frames 
may  be  made  for  small  pictures  from  colored  cardboard, 
pasteboard  covered  with  tin-foil,  acorns,  or  similar  mate- 
rials near  at  hand.  Pretty  rustic  frames  may  be  made  of 
twigs. 

Every  school  should  contain  a  cabinet  for  holding  col- 
lections of  woods,  leaves,  or  minerals.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  have  an  expensive  cabinet.  Pasteboard  or  wooden  boxes 
will  do  very  well,  and  almost  any  handy  school  boy  will 
enjoy  making  a  rack  or  frame  for*  them.  They  should  be 
arranged  in  tiers  one  above  another,  and  each  should  be 
plainly  and  properly  labeled.  The  pupils  should  be  en- 
couraged to  add  to  the  collection.  Often  they  will  have 
friends  from  afar  who  will  send  valuable  specimens  for  the 
school  collection. 


34         THE  TEACHER,    THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Portfolio  plant  collections  may  be  made  very  interesting. 
The  sheets  for  the  portfolio  should  be  of  the  standard  size 
adopted  for  the  American  herbarium  (11^2  by  16^  inches), 
and  the  pressing  and  drying  of  the  flowers  should  be  care- 
fully done.  Directions  for  the  pressing,  mounting,  and 
labeling  of  specimens  may  be  found  in  most  textbooks  on 
botany.  Growing  plants  in  pots  or  boxes  will  be  found 
useful  for  study  as  well  as  for  adding  attractiveness  to  the 
schoolroom.  A  bracket-shelf  extension  of  a  window  ledge 
will  serve  to  accommodate  these,  where  they  may 
receive  the  needed  air  and  sunshine,  though  a  movable 
plant  stand  is  preferable.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  as 
many  varieties  as  possible,  and  to  grow  plants  from  cut- 
tings and  from  bulbs.  Some  seeds  should  be  planted  to 
illustrate  the  process  of  sprouting.  It  is  astonishing  how 
many  grown  people  are  ignorant  of  the  simplest  forms  of 
plant  life. 

Entomological  collections  are  valuable  acquisitions  to 
any  school.  Something  of  the  nature  and  habits  of  insects, 
and  the  purposes  which  they  serve  in  the  economy  of 
nature,  will  constitute  profitable  lessons  for  young  people. 
Common  beetles  (pinching  bugs),  Colorado  beetles  (potato 
bugs),  dragon  flies,  bees,  wasps,  and  other  common  insects 
are  valuable  for  such  collections.  Insects  for  preservation 
are  generally  mounted  upon  long  pins  stuck  in  the  bot- 
tom of  very  shallow  boxes  or  cases.  The  cases  should 
have  glass  covers  to  exclude  the  dust.1 

Another  source  of  interest  and  profit  in  the  schoolroom 
is  an  aquarium,  as  it  affords  such  a  good  opportunity  to 
study  the  various  forms  of  animal  and  plant  life.  Small 

1  See  the  chapter  on  Agriculture. 


BEAUTIFYING  THE   SCHOOLROOM  35 

aquariums  of  iron  and  glass  are  not  expensive,  and  will 
repay  their  cost  in  the  pleasure  which  they  afford.  There 
should  be  no  difficulty  in  rilling  them,  as  pupils  will  vie 
with  each  other  in  providing  fishes,  turtles,  polliwogs,  and 
pebbles.  It  is  probable  that  the  supply  would  always  be 
greater  than  the  demand. 

A  general  discussion  of  school  furnishing  and  equipment 
would  be  impossible  here.  It  lies  within  the  power  of  every 
energetic  teacher  to  procure  many  things  that  the  board 
will  not  buy.  By  keeping  in  mind  the  needs  of  the  school- 
room, she  will  find  many  opportunities  to  add  to  its  treas- 
ures. The  additions  each  year  may  be  small,  but  they  will 
all  count  in  the  end,  and  form  a  part  of  that  large  whole  by 
which  the  pupils  are  taught  refinement  of  body  and  soul, 
without  which  education  is  but  an  incomplete  and  unsatis- 
factory acquirement. 


CHAPTER  V 
AWAKENING  INTEREST  IN   SCHOOL 

Every  earnest  teacher  understands  that,  if  she  would 
excite  profitable  interest  in  her  school,  she  must  teach  many 
things  besides  the  subjects  in  the  textbooks.  She  must 
"light  up  the  magic  lantern  of  common  things."  It  is 
necessary  to  wake  up  the  minds  of  the  children  and  teach 
them  to  observe  things  about  them;  for  this  is  the  basis 
of  all  knowledge.  Thousands  of  people  having  eyes  to  see, 
see  not;  having  ears  to  hear,  hear  not.  They  lose  half  the 
wealth  of  the  world  from  lack  of  power  to  perceive.  It  is 
therefore  important  that  habits  of  exact  observation  be 
formed  early  in  life.  In  order  that  the  teacher  should 
know  best  how  to  proceed,  she  needs  to  observe,  read,  and 
think.  She  needs  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  Jesus,  of  Aristotle, 
of  Socrates,  and  of  Pestalozzi,  and  to  learn  methods  from 
the  masters. 

David  P.  Page,  in  his  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching, 
tells  how  it  is  possible  for  an  ear  of  corn  to  wake  up  the 
minds  in  a  school  district.  In  the  physical  world,  the 
earth,  rocks,  trees,  flowers,  fruits,  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  and 
other  objects  furnish  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  illus- 
trative material  suitable  for  any  grade.  Let  the  teacher 
determine  what  class  of  subjects  she  will  dwell  upon,  and 
she  can  easily  select  her  text.  For  instance,  a  piece  of 
steel,  a  lump  of  coal,  or  a  piece  of  paper  could  be  made 
the  text  for  adroitly  bringing  in  the  uses  of  metals,  the 

36 


AWAKENING  INTEREST  IN   SCHOOL  37 

uses  of  coal  and  the  story  of  its  formation,  the  material 
from  which  paper  is  made,  early  writing  materials,  and 
so  on. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  certain  time  for  general 
exercises  every  day,  when  the  pupils  may  be  required  to 
lay  aside  their  ordinary  work  and  give  undivided  atten- 
tion to  the  subject  to  be  discussed.  In  every  case  the 
teacher  must  make  thorough  preparation  for  the  exercise. 
It  will  not  do  to  trust  to  chance  or  the  inspiration  of  the 
moment.  She  must  have  a  well-defined  idea  of  what  she 
intends  to  accomplish,  and  endeavor  to  make  at  least  one 
point  clear  at  each  lesson,  and  fix  it  firmly  in  the  minds  of 
the  children.  Meaningless  talk  which  has  no  objective 
end  is  a  waste  of  the  pupils'  time.  The  teacher  should 
always  begin  with  some  subject  familiar  to  the  pupils. 
Then  by  careful  questioning,  she  should  lead  them  to 
impart  all  the  information  they  can,  and  create  within 
them  a  thirst  for  more  knowledge.  If  the  teacher  has  the 
proper  tact,  she  can  keep  the  children  constantly  inquiring 
and  observing.  This  is  of  immense  advantage,  for  it  keeps 
the  minds  of  the  children  in  a  state  of  vigorous  activity. 
They  are  incited  to  discover  and  ascertain  for  themselves; 
and,  being  thus  profitably  employed  both  in  and  out  of 
school,  they  are  more  easily  governed. 

These  general  exercises  afford  an  excellent  medium  for 
awakening  the  parents'  interest  in  school.  As  the  teacher's 
questions  grow  too  difficult  for  the  pupils  to  answer  readily, 
they  will  naturally  inquire  at  home.  The  parents  soon 
become  interested,  and  are  often  as  eager  as  the  children 
to  hear  the  next  question.  Very  often  they  recognize  that 
they  are  growing  rusty,  and  begin  a  course  of  reading  and 


38         THE  TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

study  so  as  to  be  able  to  help  answer  the  teacher's  questions. 
Soon  the  interest  in  the  school  spreads  over  the  neighbor- 
hood; parents  confer  with  each  other,  and  visit  the  school 
to  see  what  the  pupils  are  doing.  This  secures  parental 
cooperation,  and  the  success  of  the  school  is  assured. 
Another  important  fact  is  that  it  arouses  the  teacher's  own 
mind.  Teachers  are  too  apt  to  be  satisfied  with  the  attain- 
ments which  they  had  at  the  start,  and  soon  fall  behind  the 
procession. 

In  carrying  out  the  plan  of  supplementary  studies  as 
here  suggested,  the  teacher  must  be  careful  not  to  make  it  a 
hobby  to  the  neglect  of  regular  studies.  The  period  to 
be  set  apart  for  these  exercises  should  probably  never  ex- 
ceed ten  minutes.  It  ought  to  come  at  some  time  when 
the  pupils  need  rest,  probably  in  the  last  hour  of  the  daily 
session.  An  exercise  should  always  close  when  the  interest 
is  at  its  height  —  leave  the  pupils  " longing  not  loathing." 
To  be  entirely  successful,  the  teacher  must  refuse  to  hold 
any  conversation  regarding  the  subject  until  time  for  the 
next  exercise.  She  must  avoid  all  tendency  to  lecture,  and 
she  should  ask  such  questions  as  the  pupils  may  answer 
by  thought,  observation,  and  study.  Above  all,  she  must 
be  very  careful  not  to  speak  lightly  of  the  opinions  of  par- 
ents, or  she  may  create  a  neighborhood  row  instead  of 
school  interests. 

A  certain  teacher  once  contracted  to  teach  the  winter 
term  in  a  district  school.  Among  his  pupils  were  a  number 
of  young  men  and  women  who  had  little  inclination  to 
study,  and  who  attended  school  merely  to  have  a  good 
time.  The  teacher  realized  that  unless  he  could  awaken 
the  pupils'  interest  in  school  the  term  would  be  a  failure. 


AWAKENING  INTEREST  IN  SCHOOL  39 

He  was  a  good  historian  and  well  versed  in  literature,  and 
he  determined  to  make  this  knowledge  serve  as  the  means 
for  awakening  the  school  and  the  community, 

The  history  class  was  just  beginning  the  study  of  the 
Civil  War.  One  afternoon  the  teacher  requested  the 
pupils  to  lay  aside  their  work  for  five  minutes,  as  he  had 
something  to  show  them.  Then  he  produced  a  large 
picture  of  Lincoln  which  he  hung  above  the  blackboard, 
and,  drawing  aside  the  curtain  which  covered  the  small 
blackboard  behind  his  table,  he  revealed  a  drawing  of 
the  log  cabin  where  Lincoln  was  born.  The  boy  was 
seated  on  the  doorstone  playing  with  his  dog,  while  near 
by  his  mother  was  washing.  After  a  little  talk  about 
the  pictures,  he  questioned  the  pupils  to  find  out  how  much 
they  already  knew  about  Lincoln.  When  the  time  had 
expired,  he  asked  each  one  to  find  out  all  about  Lincoln's 
life,  and  said  that,  at  the  same  time  the  next  day, 
he  would  listen  for  five  minutes  to  what  they  had  to 
tell  him. 

When  the  appointed  time  came,  most  of  the  pupils  were 
wide  awake  and  interested.  They  did  not  have  time  to  tell 
all  they  knew  in  the  five  minutes,  and  the  subject  was 
continued  the  following  day.  From  the  many  time§ 
that  "Pa"  and  "Grandpa"  were  quoted,  the  teacher  felt 
satisfied  that  a  start  had  been  made  toward  securing  the 
interest  of  the  patrons.  The  general  exercises  were  con- 
tinued; after  the  subject  of  Lincoln  had  been  exhausted, 
the  lives  of  other  noted  men  were  studied  and  various 
topics  relating  to  the  times  were  discussed.  The  history 
classes  studied  the  general  and  immediate  causes  of  the 
war;  and  their  interest  was  stimulated  by  the  course  of 


40    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

reference  reading  marked  out  for  them  by  their  energetic 
teacher.  In  geography,  they  studied  about  the  places  and 
points  of  interest  which  their  history  mentioned,  and  were 
thus  led  to  see  the  relation  their  studies  had  to  each  other. 
The  younger  pupils  were  not  forgotten.  In  language  work 
and  supplementary  reading  they  were  kept  in  touch  with 
the  older  ones;  while  the  little  tots  listened  to  the  teacher's 
wonderful  stories,  drew  pictures  of  log  houses,  and  talked 
about  Abraham  Lincoln.  After  a  time,  the  history  class  be- 
gan the  study  of  the  war,  and  one  memorable  day  they  learned 
of  the  Mason  and  Slidell  affair,  and  the  teacher  read  the 
selection  "Jonathan  to  John,"  from  the  Biglow  Papers,  by 
James  Russell  Lowell.  The  following  stanzas  were  re- 
ceived with  ringing  cheers: 

We  own  the  ocean  tu,  John: 

You  mus'n'  take  it  hard, 
Ef  we  can't  think  with  you,  John, 

It's  jest  your  own  back  yard. 
Ole  Uncle  S.  sez  he,  "  I  guess, 

Ef  thet's  his  claim,"  sez  he, 
"The  fencin'  stuff'll  cost  enough 

To  bust  up  friend  J.  B., 

Ez  wal  ez  you  an'  me!" 

Why  talk  so  dreffle  big,  John, 

Of  honor,  when  it  meant 
You  didn't  care  a  fig,  John, 

But  jest  for  ten  per  cent? 
Ole  Uncle  S.  sez  he,  "I  guess 

He's  like  the  rest,"  sez  he: 

"  When  all  is  done,  it's  number  one 

Thet's  nearest  to  J.  B., 

Ez  wal  ez  t'you  an'  me!" 


AWAKENING  INTEREST  IN   SCHOOL  41 

We  give  the  critters  back,  John, 

Cos  Abram  thought  'twas  right; 
It  warn't  your  bullyin'  clack,  John, 

Provokin'  us  to  fight. 
Ole  Uncle  S.  sez  he,  "I  guess 

We've  a  hard  row,"  sez  he, 
"To  hoe  just  now;  but  thet,  somehow, 

May  happen  to  J.  B., 

Ez  wal  ez  you  an'  me." 

Whenever  it  was  possible,  the  teacher  read  selections 
from  good  literature  to  interest  and  enliven  the  class. 
Among  these  selections  were  "  Sheridan's  Ride,"  " Barbara 
Frietchie,"  "The  Picket  Guard,"  "Calling  the  Roll," 
"Stars  in  My  Country's  Sky,"  " Now  or  Never,"  "My 
Maryland,"  "Dixie."  Many  of  the  selections  were  com- 
mitted to  memory  by  the  pupils.  On  the  evening  of 
February  12,  the  anniversary  of  Lincoln's  birth,  the  school 
gave  a  patriotic  entertainment  which  was  attended  en 
masse,  not  only  by  the  people  of  the  neighborhood,  but  by 
the  people  of  the  surrounding  towns.  The  teacher  was  so 
far  successful  in  his  efforts  to  awaken  interest  that  he  was 
re-employed  at  a  considerable  advance,  and  hi  the  following 
fall  he  was  invited  to  accept  the  principalship  of  the  high 
school  in  a  neighboring  city. 

I  have  dwelt  at  some  length  on  the  plans  and  successes  of 
this  teacher,  because  what  he  accomplished  may  be 
achieved  by  any  teacher  who  will  exercise  untiring  energy 
and  skill.  Edward  Thring,  the  prince  of  English  school- 
masters, says  that  a  teacher  is  a  combination  of  heart,  head, 
artistic  training,  and  favoring  circumstances.  Happy  is 
that  teacher  who  acts  the  Columbus  to  his  school  and  to 
the  community  in  which  he  lives. 


42    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

There  is  a  saying  that  "Any  fool  can  pour  knowledge 
into  the  head  of  a  clever  boy;  but  it  needs  a  skilled  work- 
man to  be  able  to  teach."  Teachers  ought  always  to  strive 
to  draw  out  the  child's  interest  and  fix  it  upon  worthy  ob- 
jects which  will  abide  and  be  of  value  after  school  days 
have  passed  away. 


CHAPTER  VI 
CONDUCTING  RECITATIONS 

The  success  of  every  school  depends  upon  the  teacher's 
ability  to  excite  an  interest  in  the  recitations.  The  ability 
to  tell  well  what  she  knows  is  a  necessary  requisite  of  every 
good  teacher.  In  order  to  do  this,  she  must  thoroughly  un- 
derstand what  she  attempts  to  teach.  We  have  said  that 
every  teacher  should  go  to  a  class  so  full  of  her  subject  that, 
were  the  textbook  destroyed,  she  could  make  another  and  a 
better  one.  If  she  couples  enthusiasm  and  interest  with  this 
knowledge  such  a  teacher  cannot  fail  to  secure  attention. 

Children  are  naturally  imitative  beings,  and  they  soon 
catch  the  manners  of  the  teacher.  If  she  is  dull,  slow,  and 
absent-minded,  with  no  interest  in  the  lesson,  the  children 
will  soon  become  stupid  and  inattentive.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  all  her  looks  and  actions  indicate  that  the  subject 
is  of  importance,  she  will  gain  their  attention.  Enter  one 
school  and  you  may  see  the  dull  teacher  attempting  to  hear 
a  recitation.  She  is  chained  to  the  textbook.  After  read- 
ing one  of  the  printed  questions  at  the  end  of  the  lesson, 
her  eye  sets  out  on  a  chase  after  the  answer  in  the  text.  If 
the  pupil  happens  to  answer  correctly,  but  not  in  the  text- 
book language,  the  teacher  immediately  reads  as  much  of 
the  text  as  answers  that  particular  question.  Under  such 
teaching  the  pupils  soon  grow  dull  and  indifferent,  or  are 
driven  by  the  activity  of  their  own  natures  to  some  ex- 
pedient to  interest  themselves. 

43 


44    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Pass  to  another  school.  A  breathless  interest  prevails; 
the  teacher's  glowing  confidence  and  sparkling  eyes  betray 
her  enthusiasm.  Not  being  confined  to  the  textbook,  she 
has  the  use  of  her  eyes,  and  is  able  to  give,  at  the  right 
moment,  just  the  help  which  the  pupil  needs.  Her  ready 
questions  and  intelligent  explanations  enliven  the  class, 
and  they  are  fired  with  a  desire  to  become  her  equal  in 
knowledge. 

The  teacher  should  never  come  to  the  end  of  her  re- 
sources. It  is  a  credit  when  it  can  be  said  of  her  that  she 
studies  the  lessons  which  she  expects  to  hear  the  pupils 
recite.  Bear  in  mind,  however,  that  the  pupil  studies  with 
a  view  of  reciting  the  lesson;  the  teacher  with  a  view  of 
conducting  the  recitation.  It  is  one  thing  to  run  over  the 
lesson  just  before  the  class  is  called  with  a  view  of  knowing 
what  is  in  it;  it  is  a  very  different  thing  to  study  it  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  what  points  will  need  explanation  and 
elucidation;  in  what  respects  supplemental  information 
may  be  given,  errors  corrected,  and  principles  restated.  It 
does  not  take  much  of  a  teacher  to  hear  the  lesson.  But  to 
enliven  the  lesson,  to  illuminate  the  chief  points,  to  fasten 
it  in  the  mind  of  the  child,  and  to  awaken  within  him  a 
desire  to  know  more,  is  the  real  criterion  of  a  good  teacher. 

Aside  from  the  teacher's  preparation,  there  are  many 
minor  details  which  need  attention  if  the  recitation  is  to  be 
successful.  For  instance,  if  the  seats  are  uncomfortable, 
if  the  room  is  too  hot  or  too  cold,  or  if  the  air  is  bad  from 
imperfect  ventilation,  the  pupils  cannot  give  their  best 
attention.  The  place  in  the  room  which  the  class  is  to 
occupy  should  be  carefully  selected.  It  must  be  where  the 
teacher  can  command  the  eye  of  every  one  in  the  class,  and 


CONDUCTING  RECITATIONS  45 

yet  it  must  not  obstruct  the  view  which  she  should  have  of 
the  school.  The  best  plan  is  to  seat  the  school  in  grades. 
The  teacher  can  then  go  to  her  class.  By  so  doing,  she 
saves  time  and  avoids  the  slight  disturbance  that  is  inevit- 
able when  the  class  is  called  out  to  "take  position." 

The  best  instructors  divide  the  time  of  the  recitation 
into  three  equal  parts:  a  review  of  yesterday's  lesson,  a 
drill  on  the  subject  in  hand,  and  preparation  and  direction 
for  the  next  day's  work.  The  art  of  questioning  plays  an 
important  part.  The  object  of  the  question  should  be  (i) 
to  stimulate  thought;  (2)  to  provoke  curiosity;  (3)  to 
awaken  a  spirit  of  inquiry;  (4)  to  cultivate  and  quicken  the 
imagination;  (5)  to  aid  the  pupils  in  forming  good  habits  of 
study.  "  Questioning  is  not  telling,  neither  is  it  teaching, 
except  as  it  is  made  to  lead  the  pupil  to  express  himself." 
Neither  pupils  nor  teacher  should  do  all  the  reciting.  The 
teacher  should  illustrate  and  explain;  the  pupil  should  re- 
produce the  truths  of  the  lesson  in  his  own  language  and 
learn  to  apply  them. 

The  manner  of  questioning  has  much  to  do  with  atten- 
tion. If  the  pupils  are  called  on  in  any  stated  order,  or  if 
the  name  of  the  pupil  is  called  before  the  question  is  asked, 
the  responsibility  for  continued  attention  is  removed.  The 
best  plan  is  to  state  the  question  plainly  to  the  class,  and 
then  to  call  on  some  pupil  to  answer  it.  Experienced 
teachers  have  developed  special  plans  for  teaching  each 
subject;  and  there  are  countless  ways  to  make  each  lesson 
interesting.  Only  a  few  of  these  successful  methods  can 
be  given  here. 

Avoid  formal  routine.  Children  are  apt  to  think  that 
they  study  in  order  to  recite.  They  fail  to  understand  the 


46    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

effects  of  knowledge  upon  their  lives.  As  early  as  pos- 
sible, they  should  be  taught  that  books  are  but  helps. 
All  lessons  should  be  made  as  practical  as  possible. 
When  pupils  realize  that  these  are  to  be  of  assistance 
to  them  in  their  future  lives,  they  have  a  new  motive  for 
study. 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  to  use  language  which  is 
intelligible  to  the  children.  For  instance: 

"How  many  are  four  and  two,  James?"  says  the 
teacher. 

The  answer  comes  promptly:  "Four  and  two  are  six." 

"Johnny,"  says  the  teacher,  "proceed  to  the  board  and 
demonstrate  to  the  class  that  four  and  two  are  six." 

Johnny  hesitates,  looks  confused,  wiggles  in  his  seat,  and 
sucks  his  chubby  thumb. 

The  teacher  frowns.  "Johnny,"  she  says  sharply, 
"Proceed  at  once  to  do  as  I  bade  you." 

Johnny  still  hesitates,  gets  red  in  the  face,  and  sucks  his 
thumb  harder. 

"Johnny!"  and  Miss  Blank  rises  threateningly. 

"If  you  please,  Miss  Blank,"  interrupts  the  big  sister  in 
the  back  of  the  room,  "Johnny  doesn't  mean  to  disobey. 
He  doesn't  understand  what  you  mean.  Johnny,  the 
teacher  means  for  you  to  go  to  the  board  and  show  the  class 
how  to  add  four  and  two." 

Johnny  looks  happy  again,  rises  proudly  and  proceeds. 

Often  when  teachers  are  asked  to  explain  a  thought  or 
principle,  they  do  so  in  language  more  confusing  than  the 
principle  itself.  Frequently  this  is  done  to  cover  up  the 
teacher's  ignorance.  This  does  not  long  deceive  the  pupil; 
it  is  much  better  for  the  teacher  to  confess  frankly  inability 


CONDUCTING  RECITATIONS  47 

to  explain  the  point  in  question.  At  the  earliest  opportu- 
nity, she  should  acquire  the  necessary  knowledge,  and  then 
explain  carefully. 

Always  give  the  laggards  and  dullards  a  chance.  They 
need  more  help  than  the  bright  pupils.  Many  teachers  are 
tempted  to  call  upon  the  brighter  pupils,  especially  if 
visitors  are  in.  The  bright  little  boy  with  his  ready  tongue 
may  give  the  idea  that  he  knows  it  all  and  more  too,  but 
often,  if  the  shy,  timid  little  girl  is  skillfully  questioned, 
she  may  be  found  to  have  by  far  the  best  understanding  of 
the  lesson. 

A  good  recitation  is  the  real  test  of  the  school.  It  shows, 
as  in  a  mirror,  the  interest,  skill,  and  information  of  the 
teacher,  and  is  an  accurate  measure  of  the  work  done  by  the 
pupils.  And  the  vital  element  is  the  teacher.  The 
effects  of  the  recitation  are  far-reaching.  It  is  the  recita- 
tion which  finally  makes  a  pupil  a  dependent,  or  a  student 
with  initiative  and  courage. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE   SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY  CENTER 

The  public  school  is  an  institution  in  which  all  the  people 
should  be  interested.  Progress  in  country  life  demands 
that  its  doors  swing  open  freely,  inviting  hearty  cooperation 
in  the  common  cause  of  a  better  life  for  all.  It  must  be- 
come a  center  of  interest  —  a  plant  for  promoting  neigh- 
borliness  and  common  brotherhood,  and  a  fount  of  ideas 
on  all  civic  questions  and  problems  of  common  interest. 

We  Americans  have  been  slow  in  awakening  to  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  immense  possibilities  of  the  school  as  a 
community  center.  But  at  last  there  is  an  impulse  to  "  Get 
together,  work  together,  stick  together!"  The  logical 
place  of  meeting  is  the  schoolhouse.  And  what  miracles  of 
transformation  result!  The  little  one-room  schoolhouses, 
with  their  banging  shutters,  missing  window  glass,  and  un- 
stable porches,  their  dilapidated  outbuildings  and  un- 
kempt yards,  disappear.  In  their  stead,  attractive,  com- 
fortable, well-equipped  school  buildings  are  rising.  Besides 
suitable  classrooms,  laboratories,  and  library,  each  has  an 
assembly  hall  large  enough  to  seat  all  the  pupils  of  the 
district,  and  their  parents  and  friends  as  well.  The  out- 
buildings are  approved  sanitary  models;  the  grounds  are 
attractive  and  adapted  for  athletics,  with  tennis  court,  ball, 
and  croquet  grounds.  There  is  a  cozy  home  for  the  teacher, 
—  a  model  of  neatness  and  beauty.  And  as  part  of  the 
equipment  of  the  school,  a  small  farm  adjoins,  where  pupils 

48 


THE   SCHOOL  AS   A  COMMUNITY  CENTER  49 

and  teacher,  assisted  by  the  farm  demonstration  agents  and 
experts  from  the  agricultural  experiment  station,  work  out 
practical  farm  problems  that  are  of  vital  use  to  the  neigh- 
borhood at  large. 

In  Washington  —  a  state  that  justly  takes  pride  in  its 
modern  school  equipments  —  one  school  building  is  sur- 
rounded by  eleven  acres  of  ground,  including  an  athletic 
field,  tennis  courts  and  playground.  The  school  grounds 
are  well  planted  with  shrubbery.  There  is  a  well-equipped 
chemical  laboratory,  a  mechanical  drawing  room,  manual 
training  and  domestic  science  rooms,  and  a  fully  equipped 
gymnasium,  with  shower  baths  and  lockers.  The  big 
assembly  hall,  which  is  the  high-school  study  room,  is  a 
meeting  place  for  all  the  countryside,  and  the  scene  of 
frequent  entertainments,  socials,  and  festivities  of  all 
kinds. 

In  Minnesota  are  some  thoroughly  equipped  schools 
having  each  a  modern  central  building  and  a  separate 
building  for  manual  training  and  forge  work.  There  is  an 
adjoining  large  school  farm,  and  considerable  time  is  given 
to  agriculture  and  domestic'  science.  Once  a  year  the 
farmers  and  their  wives  attend  a  two-day  short  course  at 
the  school  building,  dinners  being  served  by  the  domestic 
science  department.  The  schools  also  hold  a  night  short 
course  in  the  dull  season,  one  night  weekly  for  ten  weeks. 
This  is  intended  particularly  for  the  grown-ups  of  the 
community. 

The  schools  mentioned,  and  nearly  all  others  of  such 
thorough  equipment  the  country  over,  are  consolidated 
schools.  People  are  becoming  wide-awake  to  the  great 
waste  of  the  small  school.  Even  a  one-teacher  school 


50    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

modern  in  architecture,  well  kept,  and  in  charge  of  a 
well-paid  teacher,  cannot  fully  meet  the  demands  of 
modern  country  life.  Under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances such  a  school  cannot  approximate  the  work 
that  it  should  do  —  prepare  the  boys  and  girls  of  the 
country  community  for  satisfied,  well-rewarded  living  from 
the  country  soil. 

In  many  places,  however,  consolidation  is  not  practical, 
and  the  one-teacher  school  must  continue  to  do  duty. 
But  there  is  no  reason  why  the  ugly  little  old  one-room-and- 
an-entry  buildings  should  stand!  "Beauty  is  not  for  the 
rich;  neither  is  it  for  the  poor.  It  is  for  all.  A  beautiful 
country  school  building,  appropriately  located,  will  exert 
a  quiet  but  persistent  educational  influence  on  all  who  are 
associated  with  it,  in  school  or  out.  Its  unconscious  reflex 
influence  will  enter  into  the  life  of  the  neighborhood  and  of 
necessity  express  itself  in  many  ways.  All  who  see  a  beauti- 
ful and  appropriate  school  building  are  inclined  to  be  more 
loyal  to  the  cause  it  represents  and  less  satisfied  with  ugli- 
ness anywhere.  The  district  schoolhouse  is  the  only 
building  in  the  community  that  belongs  to  all,  and  in  a 
definite  way  it  reflects  the  civic  standards  of  all.  It  is, 
therefore,  important  to  express  through  it  the  highest 
attainable  ideals  of  beauty  and  fitness,  so  that  it  may 
serve  all  acceptably."1 

A  splendid  example  is  the  new  one-teacher  building, 
erected  at  Orchard  Lake,  Minnesota,  and  designed  to  take 
care  of  the  social,  religious,  and  political  needs  of  the 
neighborhood  as  well  as  its  educational  needs.  It  is  located 

1  Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1914, 
Bulletin  12. 


THE   SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY  CENTER 


A  NEW  ONE-TEACHER  SCHOOL  AND  COMMUNITY  CENTER 


52    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

on  a  five-acre  tract,  which  gives  ample  space  for  play- 
grounds and  agricultural  experiments.  The  entrance  hall 
leads  to  the  classroom  and  to  the  domestic  science  and 
manual  training  room;  on  either  side  of  the  hall  are  the 
boys'  and  girls'  coat  room,  each  with  its  own  private  toilet. 
The  well-lighted  library  is  separated  from  the  classroom 
by  folding  glass  doors,  so  that  pupils  at  work  there  are 
shut  off  from  the  noise  of  the  schoolroom,  and  yet  are  in 
full  view  of  the  teacher.  The  floor  of  the  library  is  raised 
two  feet  above  the  level  of  the  classroom,  making  it  avail- 
able as  a  stage  for  lectures  and  entertainments.  The  doors 
between  the  classroom  and  the  workroom  fold  back,  thus 
converting  the  two  rooms  into  a  large  auditorium.  If  the 
seats  are  not  desired,  they  are  readily  removable.  The 
building  is  of  rough  texture  brick,  equipped  with  modern 
heating,  plumbing,  lighting,  and  ventilating  systems,  and 
cost  about  $5000.  It  is  used  for  union  services  on  Sunday, 
for  all  sorts  of  social  gatherings  throughout  the  week,  and 
plans  are  under  way  to  have  the  library  open  evenings.1 

Perhaps  such  a  building  could  not  be  built  in  your 
district,  at  least,  not  for  a  few  years.  But  are  there 
not  many  things  that  could  be  done?  "  Experience  indi- 
cates that  with  direction  and  encouragement  upon  the 
teacher's  part,  the  school  easily  becomes  the  community 
center  for  all  desirable  cooperative  activity.  The  larger 
interests,  the  wider  scope  and  possibilities  revealed  in 
dealing  intimately  with  more  people  engaged  in  a  common 
cause,  the  exchange  of  social  courtesies,  all  tend  to  broaden 
the  outlook  of  patrons  as  well  as  children.  Neighborhood 
differences,  including  petty  quarrels  and  feuds,  are  lost 

1  Haugen  and  Newstrom  Company,  Architects. 


THE  SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY  CENTER  53 

sight  of  in  the  thought,  and  living  is  rounded  out  with  con- 
tentment and  a  new  hope."1 

The  first  thing  necessary  is  a  community  club.  Rural 
delivery,  telephones,  and  automobiles  have  brought  the 
outside  world  nearer  together,  but  have  distanced  neigh- 
bors. Start  the  get-together  movement.  Helpful  mate- 
rial is  available.  An  Iowa  farm  journal  issues  a  folder 
containing  a  constitution  suitable  for  a  farmer's  com- 
munity club,  together  with  information  as  to  subjects 
suitable  for  debates  or  papers,  and  directions  for  securing 
information  on  various  subjects.  It  is  sent  to  readers  of 
the  paper  on  receipt  of  a  two-cent  postage  stamp.  Many 
of  the  state  departments  of  agriculture  furnish  directions 
for  organizing  farmers'  clubs,  and  supply  suggested  pro- 
grams for  exceedingly  interesting,  instructive,  and  practical 
meetings. 

Briefly  the  aim  of  such  a  club  should  be: 
I.  To  increase  production : 

(1)  Through  improved  methods  of  cultivation. 

(2)  By  diversification. 

(3)  By  seed  selection. 

(4)  By    conservation    of    soil    and    other    natural 

resources. 
II.  To  increase  profits: 

(1)  By  cooperative  marketing. 

(2)  By  cooperative  manufacture. 

(3)  By  cooperative  use  of  improved  implements. 

(4)  By  conservation  of  surplus  products. 

(5)  By  providing  for  better  methods  of  rural  credit. 

1  The  Rural  School  System  of  Minnesota,  U.  S.  Bureau   of   Educa- 
tion, 1915,  Bulletin  20. 


54    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

III.  To  increase  the  length  and  happiness  of  human 
life: 

(1)  Through  studying  food  values. 

(2)  By  sanitary,  comfortable,  and  attractive  houses. 

(3)  By  the  use  of  modern  conveniences  in  the  home. 

(4)  By  education,  study,  and  demonstration. 

(5)  By  community  efforts  for  moral  and  mental 
progress. 

(6)  By  religious  and  social  uplift. 

Naturally  the  work  of  cooperative  production,  buying 
and  selling,  and  cooperative  measures  for  rural  credit  falls 
to  the  men ;  the  women  concern  themselves  with  cooperative 
study  of  household  management,  cooking,  sanitary  and 
hygienic  problems,  labor-saving  devices,  and  enterprises  of 
social,  literary,  musical,  and  artistic  interest.  The  young 
people  are  reached  through  the  latter  channels,  and  the 
club  is  a  convenient  medium  for  the  planning  of  various 
corn,  poultry,  garden,  and  canning  contests  for  their 
benefit.  Spring  is  the  best  time  for  these  organizations. 
Get  in  touch  with  the  county  agent  and  the  farm  adviser. 
If  there  are  no  such  officers  in  your  section,  apply  to  the 
state  superintendent  of  schools  for  information  on  what  is 
being  done  in  your  state,  and  write  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington  for  bulletins  and  advice. 
Competition  and  friendly  rivalry  among  the  boys  and  girls 
are  the  keynotes  of  success  in  this  work. 

One  whole  county  in  Illinois  is  organized  into  a  Young 
Women's  Country  Club  that  is  doing  great  work  in  com- 
munity usefulness.  Each  township  has  its  own  club  and 
president;  in  some  instances,  where  the  township  is  too 
large  for  all  the  girls  to  meet  conveniently  at  one  place, 


THE  SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY  CENTER  55 

there  are  two  clubs.  Each  has  an  older  woman  for  chap- 
eron and  adviser,  to  "suggest  avenues  of  usefulness,  and 
to  be  an  inspiration  toward  all  that  makes  for  noble  char- 
acter." The  girls  interest  themselves  in  many  things, 
from  canning- club  work,  charity  sewing,  and  circulating 
libraries,  to  Maypole  fetes.  One  of  the  directors,  writing 
of  their  activities,  says:  "You  just  ought  to  see  our  girls 
sew.  They  mean  business,  and  they  work  like  beavers. 
There  isn't  a  lazy  girl  in  the  club.  Just  now  they  are  taking 
steps  to  help  a  girl  through  high  school.  This  girl  was 
graduated  from  our  country  school  with  one  of  the  highest 
averages  in  the  county,  but  is  unable  to  buy  books  or  cloth- 
ing to  continue  her  education.  So  the  club  is  going  to  see 
that  she  has  these  things.  They  love  to  play  the  part  of 
big  sister,  and  they  do  it  so  that  you  never  think  of  it  as 
charity,  and  I  don't  believe  they  do,  either."  Naturally 
these  girls  are  delighted  with  the  joys  and  opportunities 
of  country  life.  "Oh,  I  wouldn't  live  in  town  for  any- 
thing!" says  one  of  them.  "It  is  too  lonesome  in  town!" 
All  community  clubs  branch  out  into  extension  work; 
their  influence  begins  to  be  felt  at  once  in  the  home  and 
community.  As  an  example,  the  farmers'  club  of  a  public 
school  in  Minnesota  has  erected  a  farmers'  cooperative 
laundry,  which  is  probably  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the 
United  States.  Few  things  can  mean  more  to  the  farm 
women,  in  reducing  the  amount  of  real  drudgery,  than 
such  a  labor-saving  plant.  This  club  pays  the  students  to 
test  corn  and  other  grains  for  the  community,  to  make 
cream  and  milk  tests,  and  soil  analysis.  They  have  a 
farmers'  lecture  course,  at  which  lantern  slides  and  other 
illustrations  are  used. 


56  THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

Another  such  club  has  painted  and  repaired  the  school- 
house,  provided  the  grounds  with  tennis  court  and  teeter 
boards,  supplied  the  schoolroom  with  several  pictures  and 
valuable  pieces  of  apparatus.  They  are  now  working  for  a 
piano.  They  maintain  a  cooperative  buying  and  selling 
organization,  and  a  circulating  library  of  the  leading 
magazines.  Meetings  are  held  every  two  weeks  in  winter, 
once  a  month  in  summer;  and  there  are  frequent  plays, 
socials,  and  festivals.  The  object  of  this  club  is  just  help- 
ful neighborliness. 

In  Texas  an  organization  of  country  women  has  done 
much  in  two  years  to  make  the  community  a  better  place  in 
which  to  live.  They  keep  in  touch  with  other  women, 
through  the  federation,  and  try  to  profit  by  their  example. 
They  use  programs  furnished  by  the  state  department  of 
agriculture,  giving  considerable  attention  to  home  econom- 
ics, care  of  children,  and  the  management  of  the  sick 
room.  Meetings  are  held  at  the  central  school  building, 
which  is  fitted  as  an  ideal  community  center.  There  are 
a  rest  room  and  a  circulating  library,  shade  trees,  and  tennis 
court.  There  is  an  auxiliary  club  of  young  women,  with 
committees  on  Good  Roads,  the  Country  Beautiful,  and 
Recreation. 

The  old  saying  that  everything  needed  for  home  con- 
sumption should  be  grown  on  the  farm  is  just  as  true  of 
social  diversions  as  it  is  of  more  material  things.  It  is 
possible  to  keep  our  boys  and  girls  so  happy  and  occupied 
with  home  pursuits  that  they  will  not  be  attracted  by  the 
doubtful  advantages  of  the  city.  Social  life  need  not  be 
expected  to  solve  the  rural  problem,  but  it  points  a  way  to 
increased  contentment  if  rightly  organized  and  carried  out. 


THE   SCHOOL   AS   A  COMMUNITY   CENTER  57 

The  school  must  awaken  to  its  position  as  the  most 
honored  and  hospitable  home  in  the  community.  And  the 
burden  of  this  reputation  need  not  necessarily  fall  upon  the 
teachers!  Many  hands  make  light  work.  Committees 
from  the  various  clubs,  the  members  of  the  domestic  science 
class,  and  others  may  be  pressed  into  service.  The  follow- 
ing suggestions  may  be  helpful. 

1.  Lyceum  entertainment  course. 

2.  Plays,  pantomimes,  afternoon  and  evening  celebration 
of  Christmas,  Flag  Day,  Arbor  Day,  Bird  Day,  and  other 
holidays. 

3.  Field  meets,  basket  ball,  baseball. 

4.  School  fairs. 

5.  Informal  afternoons,  with  light  refreshments  served 
by  home  science  class. 

6.  Literary  programs,  debates,  and  mock  jury  trials. 

7.  Box  parties,  musicals,  and  student  socials. 

8.  Camera  clubs,  glee  clubs,  art  clubs,  athletic  clubs. 

9.  Boy  scouts,  camp-fire  girls. 

10.  Mothers'  clubs,  young  women's  clubs,  young  men's 
clubs. 

The  time  is  coming  when  each  school  will  have  its  social 
director.  One  town  in  New  Jersey  has  two  paid  secre- 
taries, supplied  by  the  public  recreation  committee,  who 
give  their  whole  time  to  providing  evening  entertain- 
ments, which  are  held  at  the  schoolhouses.  Funds  for 
this  work  come  from  three  sources:  grants  from  the  city 
council,  from  the  board  of  education,  and  fees  charged  at 
the  various  occasions.  At  four  schoolhouses  in  different 
sections  of  an  Idaho  city,  one  entertainment  a  week  is 
given,  These  are  furnished  by  a  joint  committee  from 


58         THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

the  three  women's  clubs,  and  in  alternating  weeks  by  the 
mothers'  clubs. 

The  ladies  of  a  consolidated  district  in  Iowa  are  making 
their  school  an  art  center.  In  connection  with  two  pro- 
grams given  by  the  school,  they  arranged  an  art  exhibit. 
Receipts  from  these  entertainments,  together  with  private 
gifts  and  money  received  from  a  dinner  given  when  the 
building  was  dedicated,  placed  $300  in  the  art  treasury. 
This  was  used  to  buy  pictures  of  which  any  school  might 
well  be  proud.  They  form  a  decided  contrast  to  the  cheap 
reproductions  and  calendar  views  found  as  the  only  decora- 
tions in  so  many  schools. 

A  country-life  club  of  Illinois,  holds  an  annual  rural- 
school  fair  that  is  most  interesting.  Entertainment  is 
provided  by  several  hundred  school  children  and  home 
talent  of  the  country.  One  year  it  consisted  of  a  pageant 
on  pioneer  life,  four  hundred  rural  school  children  partici- 
pating. Each  school  had  one  or  more  floats,  portraying 
scenes  of  Indian  and  colonial  life,  the  union  of  the  colonies, 
and  similar  historical  incidents.  At  another  time  a 
pageant  based  on  the  history  of  Illinois  was  a  prominent 
attraction.  The  stock,  poultry,  and  garden  club  exhibits  are 
splendid.  Only  medals,  ribbons,  and  pennants  are  offered  to 
prize  winners,  parents  and  teachers  being  urged  not  to  place 
value  upon  honors  but  upon  conscientious  work.  Every 
effort  is  made  against  unfair  methods.  Pennants  and  pic- 
tures are  given  to  teachers  who  have  the  best  school  display. 

In  Kansas  is  a  community  playground  worth  duplicating 
thousands  of  times.  It  is  carpeted  with  the  softest,  thickest 
blue  grass,  and  beautifully  shaded.  An  old  schoolhouse  has 
been  converted  into  a  picturesque  rest  room  and  meeting 


THE   SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY   CENTER  59 

place.  There  is  a  dance  pavilion,  a  tennis  court,  a  croquet 
ground,  and  a  bowling  alley,  together  with  sand  piles,  swings, 
and  seesaws  for  the  youngsters.  A  pasture,  next  to  the 
grounds,  is  kept  in  ideal  trim  for  a  baseball  diamond.  Every 
year  there  is  a  grand  picnic,  which  is  attended  by  hun- 
dreds of  people.  A  nominal  charge  is  made  for  the  two 
bounteous  feasts  provided,  the  funds  being  divided  equally 
between  the  playground  and  the  community  church  near  at 
hand.  During  the  hot  weather,  ice  cream  and  pop  are  sold. 
There  are  no  special  dues  or  regulations,  but  one  thing  is 
thoroughly  understood  —  to  take  good  care  of  whatever  is 
being  used.  ' l  Fun  and  good  fellowship ' '  is  the  club's  slogan. 

The  best  rule  for  every  community  club  is:  Never  miss  a 
chance  to  celebrate.  If  your  neighbors  have  an  anniversary, 
get  together  and  help  them  celebrate  it;  if  there  is  a  birth- 
day, get  together,  with  a  small  gift,  and  make  the  occasion 
memorable.  Make  Independence  Day,  Harvest  Home,  and 
New  Year's  the  occasion  for  community  spreads.  Have 
socials  in  and  out  of  season.  And  don't  forget  the  strangers ! 
See  that  everyone  is  invited  and  made  welcome.  Foster  the 
sentiment:  "Look  about  and  extend  a  helping  hand." 

As  a  practical  example,  in  a  town  in  Wisconsin,  the 
Potato  Growers'  Association  was  planning  a  great  potato 
show,  hoping  to  win  honors  from  the  State  Association. 
"What  can  we  do  to  help?"  the  women  questioned  them- 
selves. And  the  answer  came  quickly:  "Give  demonstra- 
tions on  how  to  cook  the  potato."  It  was  a  new  feature 
for  a  potato  show  and  proved  highly  successful.  The 
potato  was  served  in  twenty-five  ways,  each  dish  being 
displayed  in  proper  style  of  serving  on  a  carefully  laid 
dining  table.  Later,  samples  were  distributed  among  the 


6o    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

audience.  And  the  men  took  good  care  to  get  their  share, 
sometimes  to  the  neglect  of  the  experts,  in  the  hall  across 
the  street,  who  were  lecturing  on  potato  culture.  The 
management  delightedly  declared  that  henceforward  such 
a  demonstration  must  be  a  part  of  the  annual  program. 

The  agricultural  extension  departments  of  the  state 
universities  in  many  states  are  holding  short  courses  for 
the  whole  community.  Get  in  touch  with  your  depart- 
ment and  see  if  anything  of  this  kind  would  be  possible  in 
your  district.  Any  one  who  can  profit  by  the  course  is 
made  welcome.  Time  can  be  chosen  to  suit  the  farmers. 
Usually  it  is  best  to  begin  after  the  rush  of  fall  work  is  over 
and  finish  the  course  by  March  first.  Sometimes  it  is 
possible  to  have  only  a  week  or  ten-days  course.  The 
hours  should  allow  time  for  chores  at  home  morning  and 
evening.  Farm  law,  special  phases  of  agriculture,  black- 
smithing,  carpentry,  cooking,  sewing,  and  other  subjects 
are  presented  by  enthusiastic  instructors.  Students  may 
take  whatever  part  of  the  course  they  desire. 

The  following  topics  make  good  subjects  for  club  study 
and  debate: 

1.  A  Farm  Fish  Pond. 

2.  Saving  Steps  in  the  Kitchen. 

3.  The  Attractive  Table. 

4.  The  Well-planned  Meal. 

5.  Need  of  the  Beautiful  in  the  Home. 

6.  Courtesy  to  the  New  Neighbor. 

7.  The  Duty  of  a  Good  Neighbor. 

8.  The  Value  of  Pictures  in  the  School  and  Home. 

9.  Pleasure  from  the  Garden. 
10.  The  Joys  of  Country  Life. 


THE   SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY  CENTER  6 1 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  has  long  been 
alive  to  the  necessity  for  promoting  the  highest  ideals  hi 
home  making,  and  a  variety  of  bulletins  may  be  had  not 
only  upon  all  the  activities  of  the  home,  but  upon  the  more 
important  offices  of  parenthood  and  child  nurture.  Lists 
may  be  obtained  by  addressing  the  Public  Health  Service 
and  the  chief  of  the  Children's  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C. 

There  are  a  number  of  kindergarten  bulletins  for  the 
mothers,  and  a  helpful  little  leaflet  entitled,  A  Thousand 
Good  Books  for  Children.  One  cent  buys  a  map  of  the 
United  States,  8>£  by  12  inches,  showing  all  the  states,  the 
important  cities,  rivers,  and  lakes.  Pasted  on  cardboard 
it  is  splendid  for  a  cut-up  picture  puzzle,  or  it  may  be 
used  in  a  variety  of  ways.  Four  cents  brings  a  booklet 
of  wood- working  exercises  for  the  boy  who  likes  to  "make 
something."  Ten  cents  gets  a  little  book  of  home  handi- 
craft, designed  particularly  for  farmer  boys,  showing 
them  how  to  make  and  repair  things  used  about  the 
place.  Then  there  is  a  little  book  on  bird  houses,  and 
all  sorts  of  interesting  bulletins  about  the  birds  them- 
selves. For  the  girls,  there  are  interesting  arts  and  crafts 
suggestions,  candy  and  cake  recipes.  Uncle  Sam  is  ready, 
too,  with  pin  money  suggestions  for  wide-awake  boys 
and  girls. 

A  National  Reading  Circle  has  been  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stimulating  a  desire  for  good  reading  and  to  further 
home  education.  Information  can  be  had  by  writing  to  the 
Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington.  If  you  live  in  a  state 
doing  library  extension  work,  some  arrangement  has,  no 
doubt,  been  made  for  placing  sets  of  the  reading  circle 
books  near  you.  Find  out  about  it. 


62    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Ask  for  free  printed  lists  of  government  publications  and 
ascertain  just  what  would  be  interesting  to  your  family 
and  to  your  neighbors.  Talk  about  it  at  the  club;  many 
people  have  no  idea  whatever  of  the  vast  amount  of  experi- 
menting, researching,  studying,  and  explaining  —  the  real 
effort  that  our  government  is  making  in  the  great  cause  of  a 
richer,  better  life  for  all. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  CLASS  IN  READING 

"Reading  has  for  its  highest  purpose  to  open  the  whole  universe  to 
man.  It  brings  him  into  contact  not  only  with  distant  lands,  but  with  the 
great  minds  of  the  present  and  the  past.  A  man  who  loves  good  reading 
has  in  his  own  being  a  spring  of  never-failing  joy;  there  are  no  lonely  hours, 
no  monotonous  days  for  such  a  person.  Raging  storms  and  snow-bound 
earth  may  shut  out  living  companionship,  but  these  circumstances  only 
serve  to  bring  him  into  nearer  communion  with  the  authors  he  loves." 

There  is  nothing  a  teacher  can  do  for  pupils  to  more 
advantage  than  to  teach  them  to  love  good  literature;  yet 
there  is  probably  no  study  in  the  school  curriculum  that  is 
so  much  neglected.  "The  ability  to  read  is  the  key  to  all 
recorded  knowledge.  The  leading  aims  are  to  read  under- 
standingly,  fluently,  and  intelligently;  to  gain  thought 
from  the  printed  page;  to  distinguish  good  from  bad  read- 
ing; and  to  form  a  taste  for  literature  and  the  habit  of 
reading  good  books."  l 

Too  often  the  teacher  in  reading  falls  into  a  rut  and 
blindly  follows  in  the  lead  of  the  textbook,  forgetting  to 
color  the  lessons  with  originality.  She  neglects  to  con- 
sider that  probably  the  author  of  the  textbook  was  con- 
trolled in  his  arrangement  by  just  the  two  principles  of 
easy  gradation  and  a  variety  of  exercises  as  to  form  and 
manner.  Frequently  when  the  pupils  have  exclaimed 
triumphantly,  "We  have  finished  the  book!  We  are  ready 
for  a  higher  one!"  the  teacher  says:  "Yes,  we  have  gone 
through  the  book,  but  we  do  not  know  it  well  enough  to 
1  Van  Cleve. 


64         THE  TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

leave  it.  We  will  have  to  review  it."  This  causes  some  of 
the  pupils  to  make  wry  faces,  and  justly  too,  for  probably 
some  of  them  have  already  been  through  the  book  three  or 
four  times.  The  selections  have  lost  interest  for  them. 
They  know  the  subject  matter  of  each  lesson  and  it  is  not  of 
much  moment  to  them  if  they  do  not  know  all  the  words. 
If  the  old  lessons  are  assigned,  they  study  in  a  half-hearted 
manner  and  the  teacher  is  obliged  to  exercise  no  little 
vigilance  to  keep  them  at  work. 

Would  it  not  be  better  to  allow  them  to  lay  aside  the  old 
book  and  take  entirely  new  lessons  of  the  same  grade  from 
the  supplementary  readers  in  the  library?  If  you  are  so 
unfortunate  as  to  have  no  supplementary  readers  or 
library,  do  the  next  best  thing.  Many  good  books  and 
papers  may  be  found  in  nearly  all  homes  nowadays.  En- 
courage the  pupils  to  bring  these.  Thanks  to  the  enter- 
prising agent,  there  will  probably  be  enough  of  a  kind  found 
in  the  community  to  furnish  good  new  reading  lessons  upon 
interesting  topics.  If  all  the  pupils  do  not  have  the  same 
lesson,  it  does  not  matter.  The  live  teacher  can  manage 
this  so  as  to  give  added  interest  to  the  lessons.  Cut-up 
stories,  numbered  in  proper  sequence,  and  distributed 
among  the  pupils  make  ideal  reading  lessons. 

The  wise  teacher  does  not  allow  her  pupils  to  "go 
through"  the  book  until  they  are  ready  for  a  new  text; 
she  supplies  and  introduces  the  supplementary  exercises  as 
they  are  needed.  She  studies,  analyzes,  and  classifies  the 
lessons  in  this  textbook  and  rarely  follows  blindly  in  its 
lead.  The  lessons  in  almost  any  school  reader  may  be 
grouped  under  one  or  more  of  the  following  descriptive 
headings: 


THE  CLASS  IN  READING  65 

1 .  Stories  which  have  a  moral. 

2.  Studies  of  animals. 

3.  Lessons  suggesting  occupations. 

4.  Life  and  institutions  in  other  lands. 

5.  Miscellaneous. 

The  teacher  can  very  easily  select  the  reading  material 
adapted  to  her  class.  She  may  not  care  for  so  many  moral 
stories;  or  she  may  know  a  good  story  illustrating  some 
precept  which  she  wishes  to  impress  upon  her  class,  and 
is  glad  to  introduce  it  in  the  form  of  a  reading  exercise. 
There  are  probably  some  pupils  in  the  class  who  will  derive 
great  benefit  from  lessons  illustrating  kindness,  truthful- 
ness, the  failure  of  greed,  the  folly  of  hasty  conclusions,  and 
so  on.  Clippings  or  notes  of  some  ethical  stories  are  valu- 
able. The  stories  of  the  second  class  may  easily  be  con- 
nected with  nature  study,  and  an  abundance  of  appropriate 
stories  and  interesting  descriptions  of  animals  are  ready 
at  hand.  The  pupils  will  be  glad  to  bring  in  stories.  It  is 
a  good  idea  to  have  an  "animal  day"  and  let  each  pupil 
read  the  story  he  brings.  Each  will  wish  to  read  his  story 
as  well  as  possible.  Some  favor  might  be  allowed  for  the 
best  story.  The  stories  of  the  third  class  all  hint  at  the 
occupations  of  mankind  and  bring  together  a  large  number 
of  facts  about  industrial  life. 

In  the  fourth  class  are  such  stories  as,  "A  Child  of  the 
Cold,"  " Children  of  the  Forest,"  "Little  People  of  the 
Desert,"  "A  Child  of  the  Nile."  Here  four  phases  of  life 
are  contrasted  with  the  pupil's  own.  To  the  child  the 
information  is  the  matter  of  interest;  to  the  teacher  the 
mastery  of  language  is  the  center,  and  she  governs  herself 
accordingly. 


66         THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

Let  us  illustrate  a  way  of  interesting  the  children  in  the 
story  of  "A  Child  of  the  Cold."  During  the  time  set 
aside  for  general  school  exercises,  the  teacher  introduces 
the  " People  of  the  Cold,"  and  dwells  entertainingly  upon 
their  life  and  habits,  relating  some  good  story  about  them. 
In  closing  she  mentions  incidentally  that  such  and  such  a 
grade  will  have  an  interesting  lesson  that  day  about  a  little 
boy  whose  home  is  far  away  in  the  cold  country.  In  the 
conversation  of  the  class  exercise,  questions  bear  upon  the 
following  topics: 

1.  The  place  of  the  little  boy's  home. 

2.  The  house:  its  material,  its  furniture,  stove,  bed,  etc. 

3.  Food:  what  and  how  cooked. 

4.  Clothing:   what  and  how  obtained. 

5.  Occupations:     his   play,    sled   and   dogs;   his   work, 

making  thread  from  reindeer  sinews  and  needles 
from  bone,  keeping  the  hunters  supplied  with  bows 
and  arrows. 

6.  His  day  and  seasons. 

7.  A  comparison  of  his  life  with  that  of  the  pupils. 

Which  is  to  be  preferred?    Why? 

Here  the  teacher  cultivates  the  thought  side.  She 
stimulates  the  pupils  to  think  and  to  express  their  own 
thoughts.  She  usually  follows  up  the  reading  lesson  by 
having  them  reproduce  the  thoughts  gleaned  in  a  story  of 
their  own  for  a  language  exercise.  Language  and  reading 
should  go  hand  in  hand.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  teach  one 
thoroughly  without  calling  upon  the  sister  branch. 

The  teacher  manages  the  lessons  in  the  other  divisions  in 
much  the  same  manner.  She  keeps  continually  in  mind 
the  following  principles:  (i)  that  the  textbook  order  is 


THE   CLASS   IN   READING  67 

not  fixed;  (2)  that  the  lessons  may  be  used  for  more  than 
one  purpose,  but  ought  in  every  case  to  be  used  for  a 
definite  purpose;  (3)  that  every  exercise  should  add  to 
the  child's  power  to  use  language  and  to  get  at  the 
thought;  (4)  that  his  literary  taste  must  be  cultivated  and 
stimulated. 

Methods.  It  does  not  matter  whether  the  phonic,  word, 
synthetic,  or  other  method  is  used  —  all  have  been  known 
to  produce  excellent  results,  if  only  interest  is  kept  at  a 
white  heat.  It  is  always  a  mistake  to  keep  children  long 
at  work  on  short,  easy  sentences  expressing  only  common- 
place thoughts  that  excite  little  or  no  interest.  Instead  of 
repeatedly  reviewing  old  lessons,  let  the  pupils  have  new 
books  that  will  awaken  fresh  interest.  As  soon  as  they 
begin  to  read  a  story  because  of  its  interest  their  rapid 
progress  is  assured,  and  if  suitable  books  are  placed  in  their 
hands  they  will  read  a  great  deal  out  of  school.  Hence 
the  value  of  a  good  school  library  and  a  teacher  who  is 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  books  it  contains,  and  who 
knows  just  where  each  one  may  be  made  to  serve  the 
purpose. 

Teachers  need  not  fear  to  let  the  pupils  read  stories  con- 
taining hard  words,  provided  they  are  interesting.  The 
average  child  has  a  large  bump  of  curiosity,  and  if  he  is 
stimulated  by  interest  he  will  find  out  what  the  words 
mean.  Let  the  teacher  who  doubts  this  try  the  experiment 
of  beginning  an  exceedingly  interesting  story  in  the  class 
and  then  handing  the  book  to  the  pupils  to  read  at  their 
seats  or  at  home,  and  see  how  quickly  they  will  master  it. 

John  Swett  gives  the  following  illustration  of  this  point: 
"I  know  of  one  little  fellow  who  learned  to  read  at  home 


68          THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,    AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

before  he  was  six  years  old.  He  was  not  a  precocious  boy. 
His  grandmother  taught  him  his  letters  from  nursery  picture 
books.  In  some  way  or  other,  probably  coached  by  his 
grandmother,  he  learned  to  read  nursery  rimes.  At  length 
in  looking  at  the  pictures  in  a  copy  of  a  children's  magazine, 
he  became  interested  in  a  story  about  the  'London  Cats' 
Meat  Man.'  He  stuck  to  that  story  for  three  weeks.  It 
was  full  of  long  and  hard  words.  He  gave  his  grandmother, 
his  mother,  his  father,  and  his  elder  sister  no  peace  until 
he  had  read  that  four-page  story  through.  After  he  had 
mastered  it  he  read  many  other  stories  without  help  from 
any  one.  When  six  years  old,  he  went  to  school  and  was 
put  in  the  primer  class.  At  this  degradation  he  protested 
so  vigorously  that  the  thoughtful  young  teacher  tried  him 
successively  in  reading  from  a  second  reader,  a  third  reader, 
and  a  fourth  reader,  and  then  wisely  excused  him  from  the 
primer  class."  How  many  of  us  have  not  seen  a  pupil 
made  sick  of  reading  and  school  generally  by  being  re- 
peatedly drilled  upon  that  which  he  already  knows?  He 
must  be  shaped  and  fashioned  mentally  after  the  teacher's 
own  pet  theory;  so  he  listens  to  the  " Little  Johnny" 
type  of  story  and  learns  to  his  infinite  disgust  that  the 
character  which  he  has  known  as  r  for  so  long  must  now 
be  called  the  "cross-dog  sound,"  and  so  on!  No  wonder 
he  frequently  grows  discouraged  and  thinks  reading  a 
great  bore. 

While  the  leading  idea  throughout  the  whole  course  in 
teaching  the  art  of  reading  should  be  the  thought  side,  or 
the  quality  of  the  reading  matter;  the  "mechanical-mental" 
side  of  the  art  must  always  remain  an  important  secondary 
consideration.  The  extent  of  drill  work  in  this  direction 


THE   CLASS   IN   READING  69 

must  be  determined  by  the  skill  of  the  teacher  and  the 
ever- varying  needs  of  the  different  grades.  It  is  evident 
that  some  attention  must  be  given  to  local  training,  to 
correct  pronunciation,  to  emphasis,  and  to  inflection. 
Then,  too,  such  minor  matters  as  the  position  of  the  class, 
the  attitude  of  the  pupil,  and  the  manner  of  holding  the 
book  must  receive  careful  consideration.  The  teacher 
should  have  various  ways  of  conducting  the  recitation  and 
not  allow  the  pupils  to  come  listlessly  to  the  class  merely 
to  go  through  a  humdrum  monotonous  performance  day 
after  day.  The  following  suggestions  may  be  of  value: 

1.  Remember  that  children  like  activity;  there  should  be 
plenty  of  action  in  the  reading  exercises. 

2.  Devote  a  part  of  every  recitation  period  to  black- 
board work.     Have  the  class  write  dictation  exercises  for 
the  valuable  drill  in  punctuation  and  spelling.     Let  them 
see  who  can  write  the  longest  list  of  hard  words  found  in  the 
lesson  from  memory  in  a  given  length  of  time.     See  who 
can  write  the  most  about  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson 
in  five  minutes,  or  ten. 

3.  Have  frequent  drills  in  sight  reading.     Instead  of 
hearing  the  recitation  the  pupils  have  prepared,  give  them 
one  they  have  never  seen  before. 

4.  For  drill  in  recognition  of  words,  let  the  teacher  or 
some  pupil  copy  a  paragraph  from  the  lesson,  or  a  collection 
of  sentences  composed  of  familiar  words,   then  have  a 
hunting  game.     The  teacher  chooses  the  hunter  and  he 
selects  his  pointer.     The  hunter  then  mentions  what  game 
(words)  he  wants  and  the  pointer  finds  it.     If  he  fails  to 
find  the  game,  or  if  the  hunter  fails  to  keep  the  pointer 
busy,  new  pupils  are  chosen. 


70          THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

5.  Always  make  the  reading  lesson  the  basis  for  language 
and  composition  work. 

6.  Try  reading  by  commas,  by  periods,  by  sentences, 
until  a  mistake  is  made,  until  a  certain  word  is  reached,  and 
the  like.    Try  reading  in  concert  occasionally. 

7.  Teach  the  pupils  the  proper  use  of  diacritical  marks. 
Have  them  make  a  friend  of  the  dictionary. 

The  teacher  who  would  teach  reading  successfully  needs 
to  be  constantly  adding  to  her  stock  of  stories.  She  should 
be  a  subscriber  to  one  or  more  of  the  best  children's 
magazines.  Every  school  library  should  contain  several 
sets  of  readers  for  use  in  supplementary  reading.  The 
following  list  may  be  helpful  to  those  intending  to  add  to 
the  school  library  or  to  their  own  library  for  desk  use. 

For  Pupils  in  Primary  Grades: 

Baker,  Emilie  Kip.     The  Children's  First  Book  of  Poetry. 
Baldwin,  James.    The  Fairy  Reader,  and  Fairy  Stories  and 

Fables. 
Burnett,  Frances  H.    Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,  and  Little  Saint 

Elizabeth. 

Ewing,  Mrs.  J.  H.    Jackanapes. 
Farmer,  Florence  V.    Nature  Myths  of  Many  Lands. 
Fox,  Florence  C.    Indian  Primer. 
Johnston,  Emma,  and  Barnum,  Madalene.     Book  of  Plays  for 

Little  Actors. 
Old  Testament  Stories. 
Potter,  Beatrix.     The  Tale  of  Peter  Rabbit. 
Powers,  Mabel.     Stories  the  Iroquois  Tell  Their  Children. 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis.    A  Child's  Garden  of  Verses. 

For  Teachers  of  Primary  Grades: 
Bryant,  Sara  C.    How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children. 
Hoxie,  Jane  L.     Kindergarten  Story  Book. 
LaRue,  Daniel  W.     The  Science  and  the  Art  of  Teaching. 


THE   CLASS  IN  READING  71 

Lincoln,  Lillian.     Everyday  Pedagogy. 

O'Shea,  Michael  V.     Everyday  Problems  in  Teaching. 

Palmer,  Luella  A.    Play  Life  in  the  First  Eight  Years. 

Richards,  Laura  E.     Five  Minute  Stories. 

Stoner,  Winifred  S.     Natural  Education. 

Turner,  Nellie  E.     Teaching  to  Read. 

Wray,  Angelina.     Jean  Mitchell's  School. 

For  Pupils  in  Intermediate  Grades : 
Alcott,  Louisa  M.    Little  Men. 
Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey.    Story  of  a  Bad  Boy. 
Andersen,  Hans  Christian.     Fairy  Tales. 
Baker,  Emilie  Kip.     The  Children's  Second  Book  of  Poetry. 
Babbitt,  EUen  C.    Jataka  Tales. 
Baldwin,  James.     Fifty  Famous  Stories  Retold. 
Burnett,  Frances  H.     The  Secret  Garden. 
Carroll,  Lewis.    Alice  in  Wonderland. 
Donnell,  Annie  H.    Rebecca  Mary. 
Grimm's  Household  Stories. 
Gulliver's  Travels  and  Robinson  Crusoe. 
Harris,  Joel  Chandler.    Nights  with  Uncle  Remus. 
Hawthorne,  Nathaniel.     Tanglewood  Tales  and  Wonder  Book. 
Lamb,  Charles  and  Mary.     Tales  from  Shakespeare. 
Longfellow,  Henry  W.     The  Song  of  Hiawatha. 
Twain,  Mark.     Tom  Sawyer. 
Whittier,  John  G.    Snowbound. 
Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas.     The  Birds'  Christmas  Carol. 
Wilson,  Gilbert  L.     Indian  Hero  Tales. 

For  Pupils  in  Advanced  Grades: 
Alcott,  Louisa  M.    Little  Women. 

Bachman,  Frank  P.    Great  Inventors  and  Their  Inventions. 
Baker,  Emilie  Kip.     The  Children's  Third  Book  of  Poetry. 
Baldwin,  James.    American  Book  of  Golden  Deeds. 
Bennett,  John.     Master  Skylark. 
Browning,  Robert.     Selected  Poems. 
Bullen,  Frank  T.    Cruise  of  the  Cachalot. 


72          THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore.     The  Deerslayer. 

Dana,  Richard  H.     Two  Years  before  the  Mast. 

Dickens,  Charles.     David  Copperfield. 

Eliot,  George.     Silas  Marner. 

Franklin,  Benjamin.     Autobiography. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett.     The  Man  Without  a  Country. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel.     The  House  of  Seven  Gables. 

Hughes,  Thomas.     Tom  Brown's  School  Days. 

Irving,  Washington.     The  Sketch  Book. 

Jones,  Grace  L.,  and  Arnold,  Marguerite  I.     Bunyan's  The 

Pilgrim's  Progress. 
Lamb,  Charles.     Essays  of  Elia. 
Lincoln,  Abraham.     Addresses  and  Letters. 
London,  Jack.     The  Call  of  the  Wild. 
Longfellow,  Henry  W.    Evangeline,  and   The  Courtship  of 

Miles  Standish. 

Morton,  Cora.    A  Book  of  Old  Ballads. 
Parkman,  Francis.     The  Oregon  Trail. 
Purcell,  Martha  G.    Stories  of  Old  Kentucky. 
Scott,  Sir  Walter.    Ivanhoe,  and  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel. 
Shakespeare,  William.     The  Merchant  of  Venice. 
Skinner,  Eleanor  L.     Tales  and  Plays  of  Robin  Hood. 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis.     Treasure  Island. 
Twain,  Mark.     The  Prince  and  the  Pauper. 
Washington,  George.     Farewell  Address. 
Webster,  Jean.     Daddy  Long  Legs. 
Whitehead,  A.  C.     The  Standard  Bearer. 
Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas.     Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm. 


CHAPTER  IX 
TEACHING  ARITHMETIC 

The  ability  to  teach  any  subject  well  requires  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
But  more:  that  knowledge  should  be  used  so  skillfully  as 
to  make  it  an  instrument  of  intellectual  culture.  If  this 
be  true,  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  must  make  some  special 
preparation. 

"The  teacher  of  arithmetic  should  know  it  by  its  prin- 
ciples, rather  than  by  its  rules  and  facts.  He  should  so 
understand  it,  that  if  every  arithmetic  in  the  world  should 
be  burned,  he  could  still  make  another,  constructing  its 
rules  and  explaining  their  principles.  He  should  under- 
stand arithmetic  so  well  that  he  could  teach  it  thoroughly 
though  all  textbooks  should  be  excluded  from  his  school- 
room. When  the  teacher  reflects  that  without  arithmetic 
the  wonderful  exchanges  made  through  the  network  of 
modern  business  must  be  reduced  to  the  simple  barter  of 
barbarous  times;  that  without  arithmetic  manufacture 
and  manipulation  of  delicate  or  highly  effective  machinery 
must  cease;  that  the  almost  miraculous  processes  of  the 
chemical  and  physical  laboratory  must  be  suspended;  and 
that  without  the  proportion  of  numbers,  architecture, 
sculpture,  painting,  and  even  poetry  and  music  must  all 
lose  their  charms,  then  he  can  comprehend  to  what  an 
extent  arithmetic  lies  at  the  foundation  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion and  contributes  to  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  even 

73 


74         THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

spiritual  welfare  of  mankind;  then  he  can  see  why  the 
teacher  should  be  an  entire  master  of  it."  l 

On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Arnold  preferred  activity  of  mind 
and  interest  in  the  work  rather  than  high  scholarship.  It 
is  certainly  true  that,  while  the  possession  of  knowledge 
is  desirable,  it  does  not  always  insure  a  good  teacher.  One 
teacher  succeeds  where  another  fails,  not  because  she  knows 
more  or  is  better  prepared,  but  because  she  has  cultivated 
the  ability  to  stand  before  her  class  and  impart  knowledge. 
Joined  with  this  there  must  always  be  the  ability  to  adapt 
knowledge  which  the  teacher  possesses  to  the  mental 
capacity  of  the  pupil.  Because  a  teacher  knows  a  certain 
point  and  sees  it  clearly  herself,  is  not  a  sure  sign  that  the 
pupil  understands  it  or  grasps  it.  Her  success  as  a  teacher 
will  depend  on  how  she  does  the  work  of  explaining.  Skill 
in  suggesting  points  of  thought,  in  questioning  so  as  to 
lead  the  understanding  aright,  and  in  placing  the  subject 
in  the  varied  lights  and  relations  which  interest  different 
minds  is  required. 

The  teacher  should  have  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson 
in  mind,  not  in  dim  and  shadowy  outline,  but  in  bold  relief, 
with  every  essential  fact  and  principle  clear  and  distinct. 
In  the  presence  of  the  class  she  has  no  time  to  recall  the 
half-forgotten  results  of  past  study,  or  to  pursue  some  new 
idea  or  suggestion  to  see  whether  it  be  truth  or  fiction.  A 
young  teacher  once  asked  President  Garfield,  then  of  Hiram 
College,  the  secret  of  the  art  of  arousing  and  holding  the 
attention  of  the  pupils.  The  wise  answer  was,  "See  to  it 
that  you  do  not  feed  your  pupils  on  cold  victuals.  Take 
the  lesson  into  your  own  mind  anew,  rethink  it,  and  then 

1  David  P.  Page. 


TEACHING  ARITHMETIC  75 

serve  it  hot  and  steaming,  and  your  pupils  will  have  an 
appetite  for  your  instruction,  and  you  will  have  their 
attention." 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  aimless  teaching  of  arith- 
metic. The  first  recommendation  made  by  the  Confer- 
ence on  Mathematics,  appointed  by  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
was  that  the  course  in  arithmetic  be  at  the  same  tune 
abridged  and  enriched;  abridged  by  omitting  entirely  those 
subjects  which  perplex  and  exhaust  the  pupil  without 
affording  any  really  valuable  mental  discipline;  and  en- 
riched by  a  greater  number  of  exercises  in  simple  calcula- 
tion and  in  the  solution  of  concrete  problems.  This 
Conference  suggested  the  curtailment  or  entire  omission 
of  compound  proportion,  cube  root,  obsolete  denominate 
quantities,  duodecimals,  etc.  Puzzles,  "  catches,"  ridicu- 
lous questions,  and  tricks  with  numbers  —  such  as  "If  the 
third  of  six  were  three  what  would  the  fourth  of  twenty  be?" 
and  "Show  the  half  of  eight  to  be  naught,"  are  well  enough 
for  the  purposes  of  play  and  pastime,  but  they  have  no 
place  in  the  serious  work  of  the  schoolroom.  The  subject 
of  arithmetic  needs  no  such  accessories  to  give  it  interest. 

We  need  more  practical  work  hi  the  schoolroom.  Who 
of  us  has  not  seen  hi  the  hands  of  children  eleven,  twelve, 
and  thirteen  years  of  age  examples  of  compound  and  com- 
plex fractions  which  were  more  difficult  than  any  operation 
which  any  bank  cashier  in  the  city  of  New  York  has  occa- 
sion to  perform  in  the  course  of  his  business  from  January 
to  December?  The  most  jagged  fractions,  such  as  would 
hardly  ever  be  found  hi  actual  business  operation,  are  piled 
up  to  produce  an  unreal  and  impossible  difficulty;  and  the 
child,  having  been  furnished  with  such  an  arithmetical 


76         THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

monstrosity,  is  set  to  dividing  it  by  another  ridiculous  com- 
plex and  compound  fraction.  He  becomes  so  heated  and 
worried  over  solving  such  problems,  that  he  concentrates 
all  his  energy  on  obtaining  the  required  answers,  and  thus 
fails  to  reap  the  benefit  of  any  discipline  which  might 
result  from  such  a  complicated  process. 

Many  of  our  college  graduates,  teachers,  and  students  are 
not  unlike  the  farmer's  wife,  who  in  the  absence  of  her  hus- 
band was  called  upon  to  calculate  the  value  of  a  load  of 
grain  which  a  neighbor  had  purchased  at  their  farm.  She 
ciphered  nervously  for  a  few  minutes,  blushed,  and  stam- 
mered that  she  could  not  do  it  as  she  had  never  done  any- 
thing of  that  kind,  having  always  taught  school  for  a  living 
before  she  married! 

"  Teacher,"  said  Johnny  to  the  bright-faced  young  lady, 
"pa  gave  me  an  example  last  night.  I  got  an  answer  which 
he  said  was  about  right,  but  he  said  there  wasn't  a  farmer 
or  a  grain  dealer  in  the  state  who  would  figure  it  that  way. 
Why  he  solved  it  in  less  than  five  minutes  and  it  took  me 
nearly  fifteen!  Now,  I  want  to  know,  isn't  our  way  all 
right?  And  what  makes  them  do  that  way  in  the  book 
if  it  isn't  the  way  they  do  in  business?  I  don't  want  to 
study  arithmetic  at  school  if  it  isn't  going  to  help  me  any ! " 

"What  was  your  problem,  Johnny?"  questioned  the 
teacher  pleasantly. 

"It  was  this  —  'How  many  bushels  of  corn  will  the  north 
crib  hold?  It  is  16  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and  12  feet  high.' 
I  multiplied  the  dimensions  together  to  get  the  number  of 
cubic  feet.  Then  I  multiplied  by  1728  to  reduce  it  to  inches 
and  then  divided  by  2150.42  cubic  inches  in  a  bushel  to 
find  the  number  of  bushels." 


TEACHING  ARITHMETIC  77 

"Well,"  said  the  teacher,  "that  was  all  right." 

"Yes,  pa  said  it  was,"  answered  Johnny.  "But  he  said 
there  wasn't  any  call  to  go  round  Robin  Hood's  barn.  He 
just  multiplied  the  dimensions  together  and  divided  by  two 
cubic  feet  for  a  bushel." 

"Well!"  mused  the  teacher  thoughtfully.  "I  never 
heard  of  that  rule  before,  but  no  doubt  your  father  is 
correct  about  it.  Were  your  answers  exactly  alike?" 

"No,"  replied  Johnny.  "I  had  a  few  bushels  more.  I 
told  father  that  probably  my  way  was  more  exact.  He  said 
that  maybe  it  was,  but  that  it  was  a  long  way  from  being 
practical." 

"That's  just  what  my  father  said  the  other  night  when  I 
was  trying  to  figure  up  a  pile  of  wood,"  interrupted  a  boy 
who  had  been  listening  eagerly.  "He  said  the  arithmetics 
ought  all  to  be  made  over  and  have  a  little  common  sense 
put  into  them, " 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  introduce  many  practical  problems, 
supplementary  to  the  subject  studied.  Such  problems  are 
all  the  better  if  derived  from  the  contingencies  of  actual 
business.  Any  farmer,  artisan  or  merchant,  in  an  hour  of 
leisure,  would  readily  furnish  for  the  asking  a  supply 
of  such  problems,  together  with  modern  business  methods 
of  solution.  Recently  in  a  grocery  store  a  customer 
inquired,  "How  much  is  sugar  to-day?  "  The  clerk  replied, 
"Thirteen  pounds  for  a  dollar."  "Then,"  said  the  cus- 
tomer, "give  me  seventy-five  cents  worth."  From  long 
familiarity  with  this  form  of  problem,  the  clerk  at  once 
adjusted  the  scales  and  proceeded  to  weigh  out  the  sugar. 
Here  was  a  practical  problem  of  a  kind  not  found  in 
the  books,  but  of  everyday  occurrence  in  business.  How 


78          THE    TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

many  students  would  have  been  ready  to  weigh  out  the 
sugar  at  once? 

Said  a  prominent  business  man  the  other  day,  "I  find 
it  very  hard  to  obtain  an  accurate  accountant;  so  many 
cannot  be  depended  upon  to  add  a  column  of  figures  cor- 
rectly. It  seems  to  me  there  must  be  something  wrong 
with  the  school  system."  There  is,  and  the  system  of 
marking  bears  a  large  share  of  the  blame.  Ever  since  he 
entered  school  the  pupil  has  been  taught  that  ninety-five 
in  figure  processes  is  excellent;  ninety,  good;  eighty,  fair; 
and  even  seventy  good  enough  to  pass.  When  he  goes  out 
into  the  business  world,  he  learns  that  ninety  per  cent  ac- 
curacy in  figuring,  instead  of  being  good,  is  absolute  failure; 
that  there  is  no  place  in  the  world  for  a  ninety  per  cent 
accountant.  His  inaccurate  facility  in  the  use  of  figures 
gained  for  him  much  credit  in  the  schoolroom,  but  in  the 
store  it  is  worthless.  The  fact  that  he  knows  how  to  solve 
the  problems  and  can  explain  them  with  the  "hences" 
and  "sinces"  in  their  proper  places,  is  of  no  avail  in  his 
effort  to  retain  his  place  as  an  accountant.  He  is  inaccu- 
rate; hence  his  work  is  of  no  value  whatever. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  teacher's  work  is  not  the 
correcting  of  the  pupil's  mistakes;  it  is  rather  the  training 
of  the  pupil  into  such  habits  that  mistakes  will  not  be 
made.  Many  a  teacher  sits  up  at  night  to  correct  errors 
that  she  might  better  sit  up  in  the  daytime  to  prevent. 
Let  the  work  in  the  fundamental  operations  be  thoroughly 
and  carefully  done.  We  heard  an  old  teacher  complaining 
not  long  ago  that  a  certain  graded  system  of  arithmetic 
kept  the  pupils  too  long  drilling  on  the  operations  and  did 
not  "get  them  down  to  business  soon  enough."  Surely 


TEACHING  ARITHMETIC  79 

the  laying  of  the  foundation  in  arithmetic,  as  in  everything 
else,  is  the  most  important  point  to  be  considered.  Prob- 
ably there  is  no  better  device  for  teaching  accuracy  than 
the  old-time  game  called  "Cipher  Down."  The  teacher 
chooses  a  pupil  to  pass  to  the  board  and  cipher;  he,  in  turn, 
chooses  another  pupil  to  cipher  with  him;  they  "guess  the 
number"  and  the  one  making  the  nearest  guess  says 
whether  they  will  add,  subtract,  multiply,  or  divide.  The 
teacher  gives  the  numbers  for  either  operation  and  the 
pupil  who  first  finishes  the  work  correctly  "ciphers  down" 
his  opponent,  who  takes  his  seat.  The  winner  chooses 
another  pupil  to  cipher  with  him.  This  works  up  a  good 
healthy  spirit  of  rivalry  and  the  pupils  will  put  in  a  good 
many  of  their  spare  moments  doing  practice  work  in  order 
to  win  the  victory. 

All  blackboard,  tablet,  and  manuscript  work  of  the 
pupils  should  be  executed  with  neatness  and  system. 
Neat  and  methodical  habits  of  written  work  can  only  be 
acquired  by  constant  vigilance,  but  they  are  worth  all 
they  cost.  Much  of  the  work  assigned  should  be  required 
to  be  brought  to  the  recitation  for  inspection.  The  fact 
that  the  work  will  be  inspected  by  the  teacher  is  a  great 
stimulus  to  the  pupil,  especially  in  the  small  classes  of  the 
country  school,  and  the  examination  of  work  so  prepared 
will  impose  no  great  burden.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  select  a 
pupil  from  each  grade  to  help  look  over  papers.  Each 
pupil  should  examine  work  in  the  grade  below  his  own. 

It  is  well  to  have  frequent  written  reviews  or  tests  which 
are  both  thorough  and  searching.  It  is  seldom  necessary 
to  memorize  rules.  Time  spent  by  the  pupils  in  originating 
processes  of  solution  is  much  better  employed  than  in 


80         THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

memorizing  the  author's  rules  and  solving  problems  by 
them.  The  one  makes  independent  thinkers,  the  other 
machine  workers.  Definitions,  whether  given  in  the 
author's  or  the  pupil's  language,  should  be  correct.  The 
general  principles  of  arithmetic  should  be  carefully  com- 
mitted to  memory  by  the  learner.  They  are  the  first 
truths  of  the  science,  and  upon  his  mastery  of  them  his 
success  in  numbers  depends. 

It  would  be  impossible  here  to  dwell  upon  the  methods 
of  presenting  the  various  topics  of  arithmetic,  but  we  would 
again  emphasize  the  importance  of  common  sense,  accu- 
racy, thoroughness,  and  neatness  in  all  number  work.  Aim 
to  give  your  pupils,  especially  the  boys  who  may  be  in 
school  only  a  few  years  at  most,  a  good  practical  under- 
standing of  such  business  arithmetic  as  they  will  need  in 
their  everyday  life. 


CHAPTER  X 
HISTORY  IN  THE  GRADES 

The  value  of  history  as  a  school  study  depends  on  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  taught.  Not  many  years  ago,  when 
learning  history  meant  the  memorizing  and  reciting  of 
pages  in  a  textbook,  it  could  not  be  wondered  at  that  the 
pupils  found  the  subject  uninteresting,  and  that  teachers 
regarded  it  as  of  little  educational  value.  No  surer  way 
can  be  devised  to  make  pupils  dislike  history  than  to  require 
them  to  begin  the  study  from  the  ordinary  brief  textbook. 
The  child  should  approach  the  study  of  history  through 
fairy  stories,  myths,  stories  of  adventure,  legends,  pioneer 
tales,  and  biographies.  The  Herbartians  present  history  as 
a  means  of  promoting  patriotism,  of  fitting  for  intelligent 
citizenship,  and  above  all  as  a  means  of  moral  training. 
" By  means  of  history,"  says  Montaigne,  "the  pupil  enjoys 
intercourse  with  the  great  minds  of  the  best  periods;  but 
he  must  learn  not  so  much  the  year  and  the  day  of  the 
destruction  of  a  city,  as  noble  traits  of  character;  not  so  much 
occurrences,  as  to  form  a  correct  judgment  upon  them." 

Whatever  instruction  in  history  is  given  during  the  first 
five  grades  of  the  pupil's  school  life,  must  necessarily  be 
oral.  It  then  lies  within  the  province  of  the  skillful, 
energetic  teacher  to  present  the  foundation  facts  and 
scenes  in  a  series  of  short  talks  or  stories  which  may  be 
so  real  and  tangible  that  the  pupil  will  involuntarily  be 
filled  with  a  burning  desire  to  know  history.  The  teacher 

81 


82    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

inexperienced  in  giving  such  lessons  should  begin  with  a 
series  of  short  talks  in  familiar  homelike  language  about 
Columbus  and  his  discovery  of  America;  the  adventures  of 
John  Smith;  descriptions  of  the  homes  of  the  early  settlers 
and  stories  of  their  difficulties  with  the  Indians;  some  of  the 
peculiar  manners  and  customs  of  the  people  of  those  tunes; 
the  first  American  schools;  the  boyhood  of  Washington,  his 
experiences  as  a  surveyor,  and  his  early  training  in  Indian 
warfare  and  similar  topics.  Shun  dates  and  dry  state- 
ments suggestive  of  the  encyclopedia.  Search  diligently 
for  interesting  materials  in  the  way  of  anecdotes,  stories, 
poems,  and  songs  relating  to  the  characters  and  scenes 
which  are  to  be  portrayed.  Teach  a  few  biographies  well, 
choosing  such  typical  men  as  Columbus,  the  discoverer; 
De  Soto,  the  explorer;  Daniel  Boone,  the  pioneer;  Washing- 
ton, the  general;  Lincoln,  the  statesman;  Longfellow,  the 
poet;  Morse,  the  inventor.  The  birthdays  of  such  men  as 
Washington,  Lincoln,  Longfellow  and  other  poets,  who  have 
contributed  so  many  historical  gems  to  the  world  of  litera- 
ture, should  be  commemorated  with  fitting  exercises. 

Many  little  books  and  stories  have  been  written  by  ex- 
perienced teachers  for  the  assistance  of  their  fellow  workers 
who  do  not  feel  that  they  can  "make  up"  interesting  his- 
tory stories,  so  that  if  the  teacher  cannot  tell  his  own  stories 
he  can  at  least  read  them  in  a  lifelike  manner  to  his  pupils. 
A  suggestive  list  of  helps  is  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  read  selections  from  one  or  more  of  these 
books  to  supplement  the  talks.  If  time  is  limited,  assign 
the  selections  for  the  pupils  to  read  at  home. 

If  the  pupils  have  had  suitable  introductory  lessons,  they 
may  well  begin  the  study  of  history  from  a  textbook  in  the 


HISTORY  IN   THE   GRADES  83 

sixth  year,  but  the  teacher  should  exercise  great  care  in  its 
selection.  Several  textbooks  should  be  used;  if  possible, 
let  each  pupil  in  the  grade  have  a  different  text,  then  teach 
history  by  outline.  If  this  is  not  practicable,  the  teacher 
should  place  the  outline  upon  the  board  for  the  pupils  to 
copy  into  notebooks  kept  for  that  purpose.  The  teacher 
should  see  that  the  pupils  are  particular  to  fill  out  the  out- 
lines carefully,  and  that  they  pay  especial  attention  to 
locating  all  places  on  the  outline  maps.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  them  hand  in  their  books  two  or  three  times  a  week 
for  the  teacher  to  check.  By  having  a  variety  of  books, 
pupils  are  less  likely  to  commit  to  memory  the  language  of 
the  text.  Children  who  try  to  learn  history  from  any 
single  book  will  invariably  have  an  inadequate  and  in- 
correct conception  of  it.  In  listening  to  teachers'  opinions 
on  historical  topics  at  teachers'  institutes,  or  in  looking 
over  their  examination  papers,  how  frequently  it  is  easy 
to  tell  what  author  wrote  their  favorite  text!  Historians 
have  their  preferences  and  their  aversions,  and  much  de- 
pends upon  the  standpoints  from  which  they  view  the 
personages  of  whom  they  write.  No  two  writers  will  draw 
absolutely  the  same  inferences  from  the  sources  at  their 
command.  Their  work  will  be  tinged,  unconsciously  per- 
haps, by  the  medium  of  their  own  minds  and  thoughts,  by 
the  influences  under  which  they  have  been  born  and 
educated.  In  those  cases  in  which  men  are  strongly  swayed 
by  passions,  self-interest,  or  religious  prejudice,  this  will 
be  especially  true.  Men  of  very  doubtful  character  are 
transformed  into  demigods  by  eulogists.  Napoleon  has 
been  called  everything  from  hero  to  monster,  and  was 
really  neither.  He  has  been  charged  with  infamous  crimes, 


84          THE   TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

or  held  up  as  a  model  of  kingly  virtues  and  brilliant  genius. 
Only  a  careful  study  of  many  texts  will  give  one  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  this  man,  the  enigma  of  modern  history.1 

Teachers  should  not  fail  to  emphasize  and  recognize 
the  value  of  original  sources  in  teaching  history.  Ancient 
records  relating  to  the  United  States  are  rare,  and  are  to  be 
found  chiefly  in  great  libraries.  However,  within  recent 
years,  extracts  from  old  books  and  papers  have  been  pub- 
lished in  cheap  form  for  school  use.  Among  these  are  the 
"  Old  South  Leaflets  "  and  the  "American  History  Leaflets." 
These  may  be  used  in  class  and  are  invaluable  in  forming 
mental  pictures  of  the  early  times. 

Of  late  years,  the  iconoclasts  have  so  relentlessly  torn 
from  the  pages  of  history  so  much  that  was  a  source  of 
delight  to  readers  of  former  times,  that  we  feel  like  inquir- 
ing, How  much  of  history  shall  be  left  after  they  have  gone 
through  it  all?  "The  illusions  of  history  are  almost  in- 
finite in  number  and  illusory  etymologies  are  very  apt  to 
lead  the  unwary  scholar  astray.  And  yet,  it  really  does 
not  matter  at  all  whether  the  head  of  Horace  Greeley  did 
or  did  not  shoot  up  through  the  top  of  Hank  Monk's 
coach;  whether  Peter  Cartwright  did  or  did  not  blaze  his 
way  with  a  hatchet  through  the  labyrinth  of  corridors  in  a 
New  York  hotel;  whether  Zachary  Taylor,  imperturbable 
in  the  midst  of  the  hottest  fire,  did  not  drawl  out,  'A  little 
more  grape,  Captain  Bragg:'  In  either  case  the  story  is 
equally  good.  If  it  be  characteristic  of  the  person  to  whom 
it  is  applied,  it  answers  its  purpose."  2 

1Mann,  C.  W.     School  Recreations  and  Amusements. 
2  Hubert  M.  Skinner,  quoted  in  Mann's  School  Recreations  and  Amuse- 
ments. 


HISTORY  IN  THE   GRADES  85 

Probably  the  teacher  who  had  been  reading  a  series  of 
iconoclastic  reports,  and  had  drilled  her  pupils  for  a  week 
on  the  life  of  Washington,  carefully  omitting  the  story  of 
the  cherry  tree,  was  somewhat  chagrined  when  the  little 
fellow  in  the  front  seat  piped  out  in  answer  to  her  question, 
"  Who  was  Washington?  "  "  He  was  the  little  boy  who  cut 
his  father's  cherry  tree  with  a  hatchet,  and  wouldn't  lie 
about  it."  What  if  the  name  of  Washington  does  suggest 
to  the  small  pupil  nothing  but  a  little  boy,  a  hacked  tree, 
and  an  angry  father, —  all  of  which,  somehow,  finally  made 
him  Father  of  his  Country?  He  is  becoming  interested, 
and  at  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve,  he  may  be  taught  some- 
thing of  history  which  he  can  appreciate.  Let  us  not  put 
solid  history  into  minds  too  young  to  comprehend  it.  Let 
us  leave  to  the  little  ones  the  stories  that  enrich  and 
strengthen  the  imagination. 

Teachers  should  make  history  alive.  Teach  the  pupils 
to  put  themselves  in  the  place  of  the  people  they  are  study- 
ing about.  Emerson  has  said  that  we  are  to  read  his- 
tory actively,  not  passively;  to  esteem  our  own  life  the  text 
and  books  the  commentary.  As  we  read,  we  must  become 
Greek,  Roman,  Turk,  priest,  king,  martyr,  and  executioner. 
We  must  fasten  these  images  to  some  reality  in  our  secret 
experience,  or  we  shall  learn  nothing  rightly.  Let  us  sup- 
plement the  dry,  condensed  statements  of  the  textbook  by 
anecdotes,  incidents,  stories,  poems,  and  biographical 
sketches  of  noted  men.  Brief  selections  may  be  read  from 
time  to  time,  either  by  the  teacher  or  by  some  good  reader 
of  the  class,  in  connection  with  the  recitations. 

The  following  suggestions  for  class  management  may 
prove  valuable: 


86          THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

1.  Have  a  variety  of  blackboard  work.     Have  pupils 
make  brief  outlines  of  the  lessons.     Make  hasty  sketches  of 
the  locality  which  they  are  studying  about,  locating  places, 
rivers,  scenes  of  battles,  and  so  on.     Try  to  ascertain  why 
the  battle  occurred  at  that  point,  and  the  like.     Divide  the 
class  into  sections,  each  to  write  upon  a  certain  topic. 

2.  Use  the  calendar  plan  for  important  events.     Try 
naming  the  pupils  after  a  certain  colony,  battle,  or  person, 
and  let  them  tell  their  history. 

3.  Have  historical  matches.     They  are  managed  the 
same  as  spelling  matches. 

4.  Endeavor  to  have  a  good  collection  of  pictures  repre- 
senting historical  scenes  and  personages.     The  ingenious 
teacher  may  devise  various  ways  to  use  them. 

5.  Do  not  forget  current  events.     Appoint  a  pupil  to 
report  the  important  events  each  day,  or  twice  a  week. 
Devote  about  five  minutes  to  their  discussion. 

6.  Remember  that  history  and  geography  go  hand  in 
hand.     The  physical  characteristics  of  a  country  greatly 
modify,  or  even  determine,  its  historical  development. 

Finally,  in  the  teaching  of  all  history,  let  us  keep  in  view 
the  true  Herbartian  principle.  Let  us  aim  to  develop  the 
moral  nature  and  to  fit  pupils  to  become  true  citizens. 

A  SUGGESTED  LIST  or  HISTORY  HELPS 
Baldwin,  James.     Fifty  Famous  People,  Abraham  Lincoln,  and 

Disco-very  of  the  Old  Northwest. 
Coe,  Fanny  E.     Founders  of  Our  Country,  and  Makers  of  the 

Nation. 
Eggleston,    Edward.     Stories    of  Great   Americans  for   Little 

Americans,  and  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure. 
McFee,  Inez.    American  Heroes  from  History. 


CHAPTER  XI 
A  TALK  WITH  THE  GRAMMAR  TEACHER 

"Grammar  proper  is  a  science.  The  study  of  a  science  presupposes 
a  knowledge  of  the  facts  upon  which  it  is  based;  these  the  child  has  not 
yet  acquired.  Again,  the  mastery  of  a  science  requires  a  strength  and 
concentration  of  mental  power  which  are  as  yet  only  potential  in  the  child. 
Not  only  is  grammar  a  science,  it  is  that  science  which  brings  to  light  and 
consciousness  the  subtlest  operations  of  the  soul  itself.  It  is  therefore 
not  adapted  to  childhood,  and  should  not  be  studied  too  early.  I  am 
satisfied  that  early  and  superficial  teaching  of  a  difficult  subject  is  not  only 
useless  but  positively  injurious.  How  many,  by  too  early  study  of  an  in- 
tricate branch,  make  themselves  think  they  understand  it,  and  thus  prevent 
the  hope  of  further  advancement  at  the  proper  age!" 

— DAVID  P.  PAGE. 

Grammar  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  common 
school  studies.  To  teach  it  successfully  requires  the 
highest  degree  in  the  art  of  teaching.  It  is  rare  that  a 
teacher  is  found  without  some  pretensions  to  English 
Grammar;  yet  few  are  as  frank  as  the  young  lady  who  was 
recently  taking  an  examination  for  a  certificate  in  the  super- 
intendent's office.  "You  have  three  quarters  of  an  hour, 
can  you  write  upon  grammar  in  that  time?"  questioned 
the  superintendent.  "Oh,  my,  yes!"  exclaimed  the  young 
lady,  "I  can  tell  all  I  know  about  grammar  in  half  that 
time." 

Grammar  is  not  an  exact  science.  It  should  therefore 
be  taught  and  studied  for  breadth,  not  for  nicety  of  reason- 
ing.    Parsing  and  diagraming  are  mere  means  to  an  end  — 
to  teach  the  correct  use  of  words, —  not  ends  within  them- 
selves.    The  average  teacher  sets  out  resolved  to  parse  and 

87 


88         THE  TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

diagram  every  word  to  her  own  satisfaction,  and  then  to 
argue  everybody  else  into  the  same  method.  Like  teacher, 
like  pupil;  and  so  the  latter  forms  the  same  habit  and  goes 
forth  to  contend  mightily  with  unbelievers.  Let  us  do  our 
hair  splitting  in  mathematics,  where  nice  distinctions  are 
everything;  not  in  grammar  where  they  are  next  to  nothing 
in  importance.  Such  arguments  are  not  entirely  useless, 
but  they  are  comparatively  so;  for  the  time  devoted  to 
them  can  be  better  employed.  Few  grammarians  agree 
upon  many  small  technicalities,  anyway.  We  should  get 
our  English  from  literature,  not  from  the  textbooks.  A 
young  lady  once  asked  a  college  professor  if  the  authors 
of  textbooks  got  their  English  from  literature.  "Pro- 
fessedly, yes;  actually,  no,"  replied  the  professor.  "They 
get  part  of  it  from  literature  and  a  deal  of  it  from  their 
imaginations." 

As  grammar  was  developed  after  language,  it  should  be 
taught  afterwards.  It  is  not  only  true  that  grammar 
should  be  taught  after  language,  but  its  facts  should  be 
reached  through  language.  The  young  pupil  best  learns 
the  structure  of  the  sentence,  the  nature  and  use  of  modi- 
fiers, by  actually  expressing  and  modifying  his  own 
thoughts.  The  first  language  lesson  given  in  school  should 
be  one  in  talking,  and  all  through  the  elementary  course 
the  tongue  should  prepare  the  way  for  the  pen.  Young 
pupils  are  too  often  expected  to  express  on  paper  what 
they  cannot  express  orally.  "Good  habits  of  speech  are 
caught  rather  than  taught."  Conversation  should  always 
be  made  the  road  to  composition.  Dr.  Emerson  E.  White 
divides  language  training  in  preparation  for  grammar  into 
the  following  series  and  divisions: 


A  TALK  WITH  THE  GRAMMAR  TEACHER          89 

I.   Primary  Series  —  Preparatory: 

1.  Writing  words  and  sentences. 

2.  Copying  maxims,  proverbs,  stanzas  of  poetry,  etc. 

3.  Writing  sentences  dictated  by  the  teacher. 

4.  Writing  sentences  expressing  facts  observed. 

5.  Writing  descriptions  of  present  actions. 

6.  Writing  sentences  containing  one  or  more  given  words. 

7.  Writing  stories  which  pupils  have  learned  to  tell  well. 

II.    Secondary  Series: 

1.  Writing  the  substances  of  reading  lessons. 

2.  Writing  descriptions  and  stories  about  pictures. 

3.  Writing  stories  told  or  read  by  the  teacher. 

4.  Writing  descriptions  by  answering  questions. 

5.  Writing  business  papers. 

III.   Original  Series: 

1.  Letters. 

2.  Descriptions  of  known  objects. 

3.  Narratives  of  personal  experience. 

4.  Descriptions  of  journeys,  real  and  imaginary. 

5.  Descriptions  of  current  events. 

6.  Biographical  sketches. 

7.  The  discussion  of  themes,  or  the  essay  proper. 

Attention  should  be  directed  to  the  mastery  of  the  more 
important  facts  and  principles  after  pupils  are  well  prepared 
for  the  study  of  a  textbook.  These  principles  should,  one 
by  one,  be  made  familiar  by  continued  drills.  The  ordinary 
textbooks  present  too  few  sentences  for  analysis  in  the 
various  exercises,  and  as  many  other  sentences  as  may  be 
needed  should  be  added  by  the  teacher. 


go         THE  TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Accuracy  and  facility  in  the  use  of  language,  both 
spoken  and  written,  are  the  chief  ends  to  be  secured  by  the 
study  of  grammar.  What  will  it  avail  the  pupil  to  be  well 
versed  in  technical  grammar  and  yet  be  unable  to  express 
his  thoughts  clearly  and  correctly?  It  is  poor  policy  to 
spend  much  time  correcting  errors  in  language.  Pupils 
should  be  made  familiar  with  the  correct  forms,  not  the 
incorrect. 

Modern  usage,  in  spite  of  grammarians  and  textbooks  to 
the  contrary,  controls  the  selection  of  words.  Even  the 
college  professor,  who  had  been  lecturing  upon  prepositions, 
was  forced  to  admit  this  when  he  closed  his  remarks  by 
saying:  " Remember,  then,  never  use  a  preposition  to  end 
a  sentence  with."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  seldom  that 
mistakes  are  made  in  the  form  of  a  preposition,  but  in  the 
use  of  this  part  of  speech  many  inaccuracies  occur. 

"Come  and  sit  around  the  fire,  Emersonia,"  said  the 
hospitable  western  relative. 

"There  are  physical  limitations  which  will  prevent  me 
from  doing  so,  Aunt  Rachel,"  replied  the  young  woman 
from  Boston;  "but  with  your  permission  I  will  sit  hi  front 
of  the  fire." 

All  good  writing  consists  of  good  sentences  properly 
joined.  Since  the  sentence  is  the  foundation  or  unit  of 
discourse,  it  is  all  important  that  the  pupil  should  under- 
stand it.  He  should  know  the  sentence  as  the  skillful 
engineer  knows  his  engine,  so  that  when  there  is  dis- 
organization of  parts,  he  may  at  once  find  the  difficulty 
and  the  remedy  for  it.  Sentence  analysis  logically  con- 
ducted is  excellent  mental  discipline.  To  study  the  fitness 
of  the  different  parts  of  speech  in  a  sentence  to  the  parts  of 


A  TALK  WITH  THE  GRAMMAR  TEACHER          9 1 

the  thought,  is  to  learn  to  think.  Experienced  teachers 
agree  that  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence cannot  be  gained  by  memorizing  complicated  rules 
and  labored  forms  of  analysis.  It  is  ridiculous  to  compel  a 
pupil  to  wade  through  a  page  or  two  of  such  bewildering 
terms  as  " complex  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class" 
and  "  compound  prepositional  adjective  phrase/'  in  order 
to  comprehend  a  few  simple  functions.  Many  teachers 
use  the  diagram  to  picture  the  complete  analysis  of  the 
sentence,  and  analysis  by  diagram  often  becomes  so  inter- 
esting and  so  helpful  that,  like  other  good  things,  it  is 
apt  to  be  overdone.  When  the  ordinary  constructions 
have  been  made  clear,  diagrams  should  be  used  only  for  the 
more  difficult  sentences. 

Perhaps  no  study  in  the  school  course  is  more  in  need  of 
diversions  and  recreations  to  make  it  interesting  than 
grammar;  and  yet  there  is  no  other  study  for  which  it  is 
so  difficult  to  provide  these  supplementary  aids.  The 
following  may  be  suggestive: 

1.  Have  a  variety  of  composition  exercises.     The  best 
way  for  pupils  to  learn  language  is  by  practice  in  expressing 
their  own  thoughts.     Try  giving  the  pupils  a  familiar  sub- 
ject.    Have  them  write  on  the  blackboard  as  much  as  they 
can  in  three  minutes.     Then  have  them  change  places  and 
correct  punctuation  and  spelling.    After  they  return  to 
their  own  places,  let  them  check  their  sentences.     Parse 
difficult   sentences.     In   all   blackboard   work,    have   the 
pupils  bound  a  space  upon  the  board;  teach  them  to  write 
straight  lines,  syllabicating  properly  at  the  end  of  a  line 
instead  of  letting  the  word  hang  over  like  a  vine. 

2.  Occasionally  try  written  analysis. 


Q2    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

3.  Diagraming  will  interest  the  pupils,  and  give  them 
a  good  picture  of  the  sentence. 

4.  Have    grammar    matches    conducted    like    spelling 
matches,  the  pupils  using  questions  in  place  of  words. 

5.  Try    "  enriching    sentences."     Let   the  pupils   take 
compositions  of  their  own,  and  strike  out  all  useless  words. 
Next  let  them  shorten  the  sentences,  substituting  simple 
Saxon  words  for  the  long  ones.     Note  the  added  strength 
of  the  compositions. 

6.  Try  preparing  lists  of  nouns,   adjectives,   adverbs, 
and  other  parts  of  speech.     Write  a  list  of  nouns  upon  the 
board;  have  the  pupils  prefix  suitable  adjectives.     Suppose 
the  teacher  writes  "house";  the  pupil  writes: 

The 
old 

wooden  house, 

stone 
gray 

Treat  verbs  in  the  same  way.  Try  making  a  list  of 
"conversational  verbs";  those  used  in  writing  conversa- 
tions. Teach  the  pupils  not  to  use  "said,"  all  the  time. 
Among  others,  use  the  following  verbs:  called,  prompted, 
asked,  added,  breathed,  replied,  announced,  answered, 
insisted,  commented,  agreed,  suggested,  cried,  urged,  mur- 
mured, assured,  begged,  repeated,  commanded,  remarked, 
observed,  gasped. 

7.  Teach  the  use  of  punctuation  marks. 

8.  Give  the  pupils  a  subject  with  instructions  to  write  a 
certain  number  of  simple,  complex,  and  compound  sentences 
about  it.     For  instance,  write  ten  simple,  four  complex,  and 
three  compound  sentences  about  "The  Baseball  Game." 


A  TALK  WITH  THE  GRAMMAR  TEACHER         93 

9.  Teach  the  use  and  meaning  of  words.     Pay  some 
attention  to  prefixes  and  suffixes.     Use  the  dictionary  fre- 
quently. 

10.  Try  the  following  short  method  for  simple  analysis. 

i  2      _.     P-  adj.      o.p. 

(a)  Ti^e  heavenly  gods  ofjfcen  came  to  Jimmu's  aid. 

_E X        *         2  =  Q-P- 

(b)  George  and  Mary  went  blithely  to  tl\e  nigjit  school. 

i  rel.  pro.  2_  a.c.      2_  a.c. 

(c)  T^e  diamond  which  is  pu^e  carbon  is  XjHiNjant  gem, 

i      __  o.p.    _       P.p.       i  (ex) 2 

(d)  One  of  u^e  sons. of  Ninigi,  Prince  Fire  Fade,  went 

do^n   beneath   th^e   spanding   waves  of   tK^   ocean  and 

2  P.p.  P.C.          __ 

carried  ba^k  to  n"i§  facer's  realm  th^e  jewels  of  &\e  ebr^ng 

X  '       °-P- 

and  flowing  tides. 

The  marks  explain  themselves.  Note  that  the  right 
slant  indicates  adjectives  and  the  left  slant  adverbs. 

Finally:  Remember  that  all  grammar  work  must  be 
practical.  Aim  to  give  the  pupil  a  good  understanding  of 
English.  Be  sure  that  he  can  speak  and  write  readily  and 
correctly,  even  if  he  cannot  conjugate  the  verb  see  in  all  its 
modes  and  tenses.  Few  pupils  have  much  use  for  technical 
grammar  after  school  days  are  gone. 


CHAPTER  XII 
WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS 

Geography  should  give  the  child  a  rational  conception 
of  the  earth  he  lives  on  and  his  relation  to  it.  This  view 
of  the  subject  has  led  to  radical  changes  in  methods  of 
teaching  geography  during  the  last  century.  A  glance 
into  D wight's  Geography,  printed  in  1795,  reveals  de- 
scriptive text  exclusively,  with  no  maps  or  woodcuts. 
It  opens  with  five  pages  of  definitions  relating  to  the 
natural  divisions,  latitude,  longitude,  etc.,  in  the  form  of 
a  catechism.  The  following  extracts  taken  from  a  general 
description  of  New  England  illustrate  the  manner  of 
treatment. 

"Q.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  people 
of  New  England? 

"A.  They  are  an  industrious  and  orderly  people,  eco- 
nomical in  their  livings,  and  frugal  in  their  expenses.     They 
are  plain  and  simple  in  their  manners,  and,  on  the  whole 
they  form  perhaps  the  most  pleasing  and  happy  society  in 
the  world. 

"Q.  What  are  their  diversions? 

"A.  Dancing  is  a  favorite  one  of  both  sexes.  Sleigh- 
riding  in  winter,  skating,  playing  ball  (of  which  there  are 
several  different  games),  gunning  and  fishing  are  the 
principal;  gambling  and  horse- jockeying  are  practiced  by 
none  but  worthless  people,  who  are  despised  by  all  persons 
of  respectability  and  considered  as  nuisances  in  society.'' 

94 


WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS  95 

The  pupils  were  expected  to  memorize  this  text  word  for 
word.  No  doubt  our  great-grandfathers  would  have  been 
better  versed  in  geography  could  they  have  had  our  present 
day  text  with  its  wealth  of  maps  and  illustrations.  However, 
the  textbook  is  not  the  only  essential  factor.  A  poor  text- 
book in  the  hands  of  an  enthusiastic  teacher  may  produce 
excellent  results.  There  has  been  a  great  tendency  to  routine 
work  in  this  branch,  and  probably  variety  in  the  recitation 
is  the  needful  thing  in  most  schools.  It  is  no  longer  the 
sole  purpose  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  names,  places,  and 
boundaries,  but  to  stimulate  thought,  and  to  give  the  pupils 
something  of  the  many  interesting  and  curious  facts,  some 
history,  and  some  folklore,  that  no  single  textbook  should  or 
could  contain.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  supply  this 
interesting  material. 

Modern  geography  addresses  itself  to  the  youngest  pupils. 
It  is  wrong  to  suppose  that  the  child  sees  only  his  home  and 
school.  The  sky  is  up  above  him  with  its  sun,  stars,  and 
moon,  its  clouds,  storms,  and  rain.  He  has  seen  the  hills 
and  mountains  against  the  distant  horizon.  Trees,  shrubs, 
and  certain  forms  of  wild-animal  life  are  familiar.  These 
things  may  all  be  described  to  him.  For  this  is  real  geogra- 
phy, and  presented  in  its  relation  to  home  and  school  sur- 
roundings, and,  later  to  history,  past  and  current,  and  to 
the  various  natural  sciences,  it  is  a  source  of  unfailing  in- 
terest. The  recreations  of  which  it  admits  are  inexhaustible. 

Supplementary  reading  in  relation  to  geography  may  be 
mentioned  as  chief  among  the  many  recreations.  Children 
like  to  learn  of  the  conditions  and  surroundings  of  people 
in  strange  and  distant  lands;  of  occupations  and  manners  of 
life  unlike  their  own;  of  the  natural  features  of  countries 


g6    THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

which  present  a  strong  contrast  to  the  scenes  with  which 
they  are  familiar.  Suitable  books  for  this  purpose,  well 
adapted  to  interest  and  instruct,  without  bewildering  the 
young  pupil,  can  easily  be  obtained.  There  are  many 
well-known  poems  which  can  be  called  to  mind,  referring 
to  geographical  locations;  for  instance:  "A  Meditation 
on  Rhode  Island  Coal,"  by  Bryant;  "The  Nadowessie 
Chieftain,"  by  Schiller;  "Through  Minnehaha's  Veil"  and 
"My  Merrimac,"  by  Lucy  Larcom;  "The  Jewish  Ceme- 
tery at  Newport"  and  "The  Arsenal  at  Springfield,"  by 
Longfellow;  "The  Mammoth  Cave"  and  "Seneca  Lake," 
by  Percival;  "Bingen  on  the  Rhine,"  by  Mrs.  Norton; 
"How  They  Brought  the  Good  News,"  by  Robert  Brown- 
ing, and  countless  others.  "Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage," 
by  Byron  will  supply  a  series  of  beautiful  poetical  descrip- 
tions relating  to  places  of  historical  interest  in  Europe. 
Narratives  of  travel  possess  a  charm  for  young  readers. 
When  skillfully  and  naturally  written,  they  abound  in 
geographical  information.  Among  the  books  in  the  school 
library  should  be  some  which  throw  light  upon  the  subject 
of  geography  and  afford  entertaining  and  instructive  read- 
ing. A  suggestive  list  follows  this  chapter.  The  pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  read  at  home  and  in  their  spare 
time  at  school.  A  few  minutes  of  the  recitation  might  be 
devoted  to  profitable  discussion  of  the  subjects  read. 

Imaginary  journeys  afford  a  valuable  and  interesting 
recreation,  provided  they  are  carried  on  in  an  interesting 
way.  For  instance,  the  journey  by  rail  from  New  York 
to  Chicago  will  suppose  a  passage  through  the  gardens  of 
New  Jersey,  the  coal  and  iron  tracts  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
farming  lands  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  and  the  lake  shore  of 


WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS  97 

Illinois.  Much  interest  may  be  added  by  exhibiting 
samples  of  products  from  different  localities,  pictures  of 
scenery,  places  and  noted  persons,  by  relating  stories  and 
anecdotes  regarding  prominent  persons  and  places. 

Some  physical  geography  should  be  taught  in  all  schools. 
Where  there  is  not  a  regular  class,  it  will  be  best  to  include 
this  instruction  in  the  general  information  lesson.  The 
pupils  should  be  taught  the  use  of  the  thermometer  and 
the  barometer,  and  should  have  some  understanding  of 
the  work  of  the  Signal  Service.  The  whole  process  of 
evaporation,  cloud  formation,  and  the  precipitation  of  rain, 
hail,  and  snow,  may  be  easily  explained  and  illustrated  by 
familiar  examples.1  The  endless  story  of  water  circulation 
in  nature  is  invariably  interesting  to  children  of  all  grades. 
In  studying  the  climates  of  the  various  countries,  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  climatic  influences,  not  only  upon 
the  occupations,  dress,  and  social  habits  of  the  people,  but 
also  upon  their  dispositions,  their  character,  and  their 
amusements.  The  pupils  should  learn  something,  too,  of 
the  formation  of  the  earth's  crust;  the  long  period  of  time 
which  has  been  required  for  the  formation;  when  the 
successive  forms  of  life  appeared,  and  what  they  were.  An 
interesting  talk  might  be  given  regarding  the  location  of 
common  minerals  and  the  forms  in  which  they  occur. 
Another  interesting  topic  for  discussion  is  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  and  deep-sea  life. 

In  order  that  the  pupils  may  understand  poetical  allu- 
sions, it  will  be  well  for  them  to  learn  the  poetical  names  of 

1  A  chart  is  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C., 
illustrating  the  various  kinds  of  clouds  in  colors  together  with  a  full  de- 
scription of  each  kind. 


98          THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,  'AND  THE   COMMUNITY 


countries.  Thus  Wales  is  spoken  of  as  Cambria;  England, 
as  Britannia;  Scotland,  as  Scotia  or  Caledonia;  Greece,  as 
Hellas;  Ireland,  as  Hibernia;  Switzerland,  as  Helvetia; 
Spain,  as  Iberia.  The  following  popular  designations 
given  to  some  of  our  states  will  also  be  of  interest. 


Alabama,  Cotton  State. 
Arkansas,  Bear  State. 
California,  Golden  State. 
Colorado,  Centennial  State. 
Connecticut,  Nutmeg  State. 
Delaware,  Blue  Hen  State. 
Florida,  Peninsula  State., 
Georgia,  Cracker  State. 
Illinois,  Prairie  State. 
Indiana,  Hoosier  State. 
Iowa,  Hawkeye  State. 
Kansas,  Central  State. 
Kentucky,  Blue  Grass  State. 
Louisiana,  Creole  State. 
Maine,  Pine  Tree  State. 
Maryland,  Old  Line  State. 
Massachusetts,  Bay  State. 
Michigan,  Wolverene  State. 
Minnesota,  Bread  and  Butter 

State. 
Mississippi,  Bayou  State. 


Missouri,  Bullion  State. 
Nebraska,  Tree-planter  State. 
Nevada,  Silver  State. 
New  Hampshire,  Granite  State. 
New  York,  Empire  State. 
North    Carolina,    Turpentine 

State. 

Ohio,  Buckeye  State. 
Oregon,  Webfoot  State. 
Pennsylvania,  Keystone  State. 
Rhode  Island,  Little  Rhody. 
South       Carolina,       Palmetto 

State. 

South  Dakota,  Blizzard  State. 
Texas,  Lone  Star  State. 
Vermont,      Green      Mountain 

State. 

Virginia,  Old  Dominion. 
Washington,  Evergreen  State. 
West  Virginia,  Panhandle  State. 
Wisconsin,  Badger  State. 


Many  American  cities  also  have  acquired  humorous  or 


poetic    designations,    which 
throughout  the  country. 

Boston,  the  Hub. 

Buffalo,  Queen  of  the  Lakes. 

Atlanta,    Gate    City    of    the 

South. 
Chicago,  Garden  City. 


have    become    popularized 

New  York,  Gotham. 
Pittsburgh,  Smoky  City. 
Lowell,  City  of  Spindles. 
Detroit,  City  of  the  Straits. 
Pasadena,  City  of  Roses. 


WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS  99 

It  will  prove  interesting  to  trace  the  derivation  of 
geographical  names.  About  half  the  states  and  territories 
of  the  Union  have  names  derived  from  the  language  of  the 
Indians,  and  the  same  is  true  of  a  great  number  of  cities, 
towns,  and  counties.  In  thousands  of  instances  the  old 
Indian  names  are  retained  for  mountains,  hills,  rivers, 
waterfalls,  and  other  natural  features.  That  many  of 
these  Indian  names  are  decidedly  picturesque  and  poetical 
in  character  is  shown  by  their  meanings: 

Iowa,  The  sleepy  ones.  Chautauqua,  Foggy  place. 

Ohio,  The  beautiful.  Alabama,  Here  we  rest. 

Minnehaha,  Laughing  water.  Massachusetts,  The  blue  hills. 

Ontario,  A  beautiful  lake.  Katahdin,  The  highest  place. 

Rappahannock,  River  that  Mississippi,  The  great  and 

flows  and  ebbs.  long  river. 

Tennessee,  River  of  the  big  Saratoga,  Miraculous  water 

bend.  in  a  rock. 

Penobscot,  It  flows  on  the  Roanoke,  Smoothed  shells. 

rocks.  Nebraska,  Shallow  water. 

Niagara,  Neck  of  water.  Minnesota,  Smoky  water. 

Amusing  accounts  are  given  of  the  origin  of  some  geo- 
graphical names.  An  exploring  party  of  Spaniards  who 
passed  the  great  peninsula  at  the  south  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  made  a  brief  landing  to  learn  the  name  of 
the  country.  An  inquiry  was  made  of  the  first  native  they 
met,  who  queried,  in  turn,  "Juca  tan?"  ("What  do  you 
say?")  The  investigators  bowed  and  returned  to  the  ship 
well-satisfied,  reporting:  "The  natives  say  the  name  of 
this  country  is  Yucatan."  The  peninsula  has  been  known 
by  this  name  ever  since.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
name  America  was  applied  originally  to  this  country  in 


100        THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

error,  thus  giving  to  a  merchant  of  Seville,  Spain,  the 
honor  which  should  have  belonged  to  Columbus. 

If  the  teacher  is  a  good  artist,  often  a  few  skillful  strokes 
of  the  crayon  will  fix  outline  maps  of  geographical  divisions 
clearly  in  mind,  by  comparing  them  with  drawings  of  vari- 
ous figures  of  similar  shapes.  Thus  Italy  is  compared  to  a 
long  hunting  boot;  France  to  an  ice  pitcher;  New  York  to  a 
lion;  Virginia  to  a  camel;  Lake  Ontario  to  a  seal;  Lakes 
Erie  and  St.  Clair  and  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  a  whale;  the  Sea 
of  Japan  to  a  rabbit;  Corsica  to  a  hand,  New  Guinea  to  a 
guinea  fowl,  and  so  on,  depending  upon  the  teacher's 
ingenuity. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  fix  in  the  pupil's  mind  what  he 
has  learned  is  by  the  writing  of  compositions  of  his  own 
which  will  call  out  all  his  knowledge  upon  a  given  subject, 
and  cause  him  to  make  an  effort  to  increase  his  stock  of 
learning.  Subjects  for  such  compositions  may  be  taken 
from  all  parts  of  the  geography.  The  following  titles  will 
show  what  a  wide  range  may  be  covered:  "Down  in  a  Coal 
Mine,"  "An  Adventure  in  a  Lumber  Region,"  "Making 
Maple  Sugar,"  "Farming  in  the  West,"  "Salmon  Fishing," 
"Some  Noted  Caves,"  "The  Yellowstone  National  Park." 

Excellent  relief  maps  may  be  drawn  upon  the  board. 
The  teacher  is  referred  to  the  relief  maps  in  any  good  en- 
cyclopedia or  geography  for  methods  of  constructing  them. 
A  little  practice  will  enable  the  most  inexperienced  to  pro- 
duce a  fair  map.  Modeling  relief  maps  of  clay  or  pulp 
will  effectually  fix  in  the  mind  the  principal  slopes,  moun- 
tain ranges,  and  river  systems.  For  various  reasons,  it 
may  not  be  practical  to  work  with  clay  in  the  schoolroom. 
Pulp  is  more  easily  obtained  and  may  be  preserved  longer. 


WITH  THE   GEOGRAPHY  >CLASS,  ,,,,,,„,,     ,  IOI 

The  following  directions  for  making  pulp  maps  may  be 
of  value  to  the  inexperienced.  Soak  old  newspapers  over 
night,  wring  out  and  knead  with  the  hands  into  a  white 
pulp.  Draw  two  maps  of  the  size  which  you  wish  the 
pulp  map  to  be,  and  procure  a  smoothly  planed  board  one 
and  one-half  inches  wider  all  around  than  the  map.  Next 
make  a  paste  of  cornstarch  and  a  little  powdered  alum; 
mix  carefully  with  a  little  cold  water  to  the  consistency  of 
thick  cream;  and  boil  three  or  four  minutes,  stirring  con- 
stantly. The  board  and  paste  being  ready,  soak  one  map 
and  one  sheet  of  cartridge  or  brown  paper,  same  size  as 
the  map,  in  cold  water  till  they  are  saturated.  Take  care 
that  they  lie  perfectly  flat.  Remove  the  map  and  paper 
from  the  bath  and  carefully  lay  them  upon  a  piece  of  muslin 
in  order  that  it  may  absorb  the  superfluous  moisture.  Let 
them  remain  to  expand  about  ten  minutes.  With  your 
paste  brush  work  the  paste  well  into  the  back  of  the  board 
and  upon  one  side  of  the  blank  sheet  of  paper;  mount  the 
paper  on  the  back  of  the  board.  (Be  careful  not  to  leave 
much  paste  upon  the  paper,  work  well  into  the  pores.) 
Mount  the  map  on  the  front  of  the  board;  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  place  a  sheet  of  blank  paper  over  the  map  and 
work  evenly  over  the  surface  with  a  round  rule,  then  leave 
the  work  to  dry  twenty-four  hours.  Next  determine  and 
mark  on  the  map  by  tacks  or  pins,  iK  inches  to  }/2  inch  in 
length,  the  position  and  altitude  of  the  chief  hills,  moun- 
tains, etc.  Work  a  little  gum  arabic  or  glue  over  the  map; 
let  dry  and  then  build  up  the  principal  mountain  ranges 
with  the  pulp.  Make  the  ridges  irregular,  and  none  so  high 
as  the  first  point.  Tool  out  the  valleys  in  the  hillsides. 
Build  the  pulp  in  cones,  keeping  each  point  distinct,  leaving 


IP2,   ,  THF,  TEA  CHER  Y  THEf  SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

the  valleys  to  be  filled  in  after  the  modeling  has  become 
partly  dry.  In  making  the  valleys,  roll  a  piece  of  pulp  half 
the  width  of  the  depression,  then  spread  until  it  reaches  the 
mountain  sides.  Now  make  the  coast  and  coast  line;  roll 
out  a  long  piece  of  pulp  and  run  one  fourth  of  an  inch 
from  the  coast.  Pressure  of  the  fingers  will  make  it  approach 
the  coast.  Smooth  the  pulp  down  seaward  where  there 
are  no  cliffs,  and  blend  in  with  the  undulations  of  the  land 
beyond.  The  rivers  may  be  cut  out  with  a  knife,  countries 
colored  and  borders  marked,  as  desired. 

Some  teachers  may  prefer  to  make  salt  relief  maps. 
These  are  made  with  about  one  pound  of  cornstarch  and 
two  quarts  of  salt.  Moisten  the  starch  with  a  very  little 
water  and  heat  the  salt.  Then  mix  the  two  together  and 
bake  until  thick  enough  to  mold.  Roll  in  a  damp  cloth 
and  set  aside  to  be  used  as  needed.  (The  hands  should  be 
kept  moist  when  working  with  the  mixture.)  Draw  an 
outline  map  on  heavy  cardboard.  Cover  with  the  mixture 
and  put  on  the  elevations;  when  done  the  map  may  be 
baked  until  dry,  or  it  will  dry  of  itself  if  left  undisturbed 
twenty-four  hours. 

Another  excellent  kind  of  relief  map  is  the  sand  map. 
To  make  this  draw  an  outline  on  cardboard,  and  spread  with 
a  thin  coat  of  mucilage.  Sprinkle  the  mucilage  with  fine 
sand  and  work  it  in  well.  For  mountains  and  highlands 
alternate  mucilage  and  sand  until  the  proper  relation  be- 
tween highland  and  valley  is  secured.  Dry  in  the  sun.  If  the 
mucilage  spreads  beyond  the  outline,  trim  back  with  a  knife. 

Very  pleasing  relief  maps  can  be  easily  cut  from  soft  box- 
wood. The  outline  is  first  drawn  on  the  board,  and  the 
rivers  and  lakes  tooled  out  with  a  sharp  knife  or  chiseL 


WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS  103 

When  attractively  colored  and  finished  these  maps  add 
materially  to  the  room  decorations. 

Map  drawing  should  have  a  prominent  place  in  all 
geography  teaching.  Pupils  ought  at  least  to  be  able  to 
draw  quickly  from  memory,  fair  outline  maps  of  each  of  the 
grand  divisions,  their  own  state,  county,  and  township. 
They  should  be  able  to  locate  the  principal  mountains, 
cities  and  rivers.  One  of  the  most  successful  methods  of 
presenting  map  work  is  by  a  series  of  outlines,  tracing  and 
sketching.1 

Much  interest  may  be  aroused  in  industrial  geography, 
and  probably  there  is  no  better  plan  than  the  comparatively 
new  " problem"  method.  The  wise  teacher  is  on  the  look- 
out continually  for  pictures,  references,  and  little  odds  and 
ends  of  information  of  every  sort  to  further  her  work  in 
the  schoolroom.  Suppose  the  geography  class  is  studying 
about  the  states  of  the  cotton  belt.  The  teacher  turns  to 
the  filing  box2  labeled  "  Industries."  The  envelope  on 
" Cotton"  contains  enough  material  to  fire  the  class  with 
enthusiasm.  Pictures  may  then  be  shown  that  illustrate 
the  two  ways  of  picking  cotton  (hand  picking  and  ma- 
chinery.) Pictures  of  cotton  fields  and  of  a  single  plant  in 
all  its  stages  of  growth  come  next. 

Problem: 

How  is  the  soil  prepared  for  planting?  (Compare  the 
plows  in  use  in  the  cotton  belt  with  the  plows  in  the  corn 
belt).  What  conclusion  is  drawn  concerning  the  soil  of 
the  cotton  belt? 

1  For  further  direction  on  this  point  see  McFee,  Outlines,  Devices,  and 
Recreations  in  U.S.  Geography. 

2  See  the  chapter  on  "The  School  Library"  for  suggestion  regarding  the 
filing  of  clippings. 


104   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Study  a  relief  map  of  the  cotton  belt  states.  Note  the 
coastal  plain,  with  its  rich  soil,  the  slopes  farther  back  from 
the  plain,  where  upland  cotton  is  raised;  the  drainage,  im- 
portance of  the  large  rivers  in  each  section. 

Study  the  climatic  factors  which  influence  the  region, 
(i)  The  winds,  their  general  direction.  (2)  Temperature 
and  amount  of  rainfall  (when  needed  and  when  detrimental 
to  the  crop) ;  length  of  the  growing  season. 

Study  the  maps  of  the  cotton  producing  states  as 
shown  in  Bulletin  107  (Department  of  Commerce  and 
Labor). 

Problems: 

1.  Why  is  so  little  cotton  grown  in  North  Carolina? 

2.  Why  does  the  cotton  boundary  line  include  only  the 
very  southeastern  part  of  Missouri? 

3.  Why  are  the  western  counties  of  Texas  cut  out? 

4.  Why   is   the   northwestern   strip   of   Oklahoma   ex- 
cluded; why  are  New  Mexico  and  Arkansas  "patchy"? 

Examine  samples  of  cotton;  long  staple  and  short  staple, 
and  sea-island,  the  best  example  of  long  staple  cotton.  Find 
where  it  grows.  Talk  about  its  rival,  the  Egyptian  cotton. 
If  possible,  exhibit  a  few  cotton  bolls.  The  children  clean 
out  the  seeds,  and  are  then  ready  to  appreciate  the  full 
value  of  the  cotton  gin,1  and  to  regard  with  interest,  not 
only  pictures  of  the  first  gin  and  its  inventor,  but  types  of 
later  machines.  The  teacher  then  propounds  the  query: 

1  It  would  take  an  average  worker  two  years  to  remove  the  seeds  from 
sufficient  cotton  to  make  a  bale.  In  the  old  days,  it  is  said  that  a  slave's 
evening  was  spent  picking  a  shoe  full  of  cotton  seed.  The  average  gin 
turns  out  from  five  to  fourteen  bales  daily.  A  bale  weighs  500  pounds.  It 
takes  about  fourteen  hundred  pounds  of  raw  cotton  to  make  a  bale,  so  that 
nearly  two  thirds  of  the  weight  is  seed. 


WITH   THE    GEOGRAPHY   CLASS  10$ 

"  What  use  is  made  of  cotton  seeds?  "  This  is  search  mate- 
rial for  home  reference. 

Next  comes  the  manner  of  baling  cotton  and  the  two 
shapes  of  bales.  What  is  done  with  the  cotton  bales? 
Examine  pictures  that  show  transportation  of  cotton  bales 
to  the  wharves  and  the  railroad.  Locate  rivers  in  the  cot- 
ton belt  that  carry  cotton  to  the  cotton  mills. 

Problems: 

1.  Discuss  the  cotton  mills  of  New  England.     Why  are 
there  mills  in  this  region  so  far  from  the  cotton  belt? 

2.  Which  is  the  cheaper  method  of  transportation,  by 
rail  or  by  water? 

3.  Why  are  we  sending  proportionately  less  cotton  away 
from  the  United  States  each  year? 

4.  The  cost  of  growing  cotton. 

5.  Menaces  to  the  cotton  industry. 

6.  The  people  engaged  in  cotton  growing. 

Close  the  study  of  cotton  with  a  cotton  program  on 
Friday  afternoon.     The  following  is  suggestive: 
Songs: 

" Nellie  Gray." 
"Old  Black  Joe." 
"Dixie." 

"Little  Old  Log  Cabin  in  de  Lane." 
"Suwannee  River." 
Compositions: 

"The  Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant." 
"Down  the  River  to  Memphis  with  a  Cotton  Bale." 
"The  By-products  of  Cotton." 
"Eli  Whitney  and  the  Cotton  Gin." 
"Spinning  in  the  Old  Days." 


106      THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

"A  Visit  to  a  Cotton  Mill." 

"A  Spool  of  Thread." 

"Uncle  Sam  and  the  Cotton  Industry." 

"In  the  Cotton  Fields  Before  the  War." 

"An  Up-to-date  Cotton  Plantation." 

"Enemies  of  the  Cotton  Plant." 

Make  a  special  effort  to  have  the  school  patrons  present. 
Display  as  many  pictures  and  samples  of  cotton  products 
as  possible.  In  almost  every  neighborhood  there  are  care- 
fully preserved  products  of  great-grandmother's  loom. 
Have  a  special  table  for  the  exhibition.  Endeavor  to  find 
some  elderly  lady  who  will  bring  her  spinning  wheel  and 
show  how  the  mothers  used  to  spend  their  evenings. 

In  like  manner,  each  section  of  our  country  yields  mate- 
rial for  scores  of  industry  lessons.  To  the  teacher  once 
aroused,  the  problem  will  be  not  what  to  take  up,  but 
what  to  omit.  Here  are  a  few  interesting  and  important 
topics : 

The  Wheat  Belt  of  Our  Country. 
Where  Corn  is  King. 
Our  Forests. 

(a)  The  Forestry  Service. 

(b)  Gifts  of  the  Forest. 

1.  Maple  Sugar. 

2.  Turpentine,  Gums,  and  Rosin. 

3.  Lumber  and  Fuel. 

4.  Camphor,  etc. 
Fruits  of  the  United  States: 

(a)  The  Land  of  the  Big  Red  Apple. 

(b)  Where  Pears  Hang  High. 

(c)  The  Fruit  of  the  Vine. 

(d)  Peach  Areas  of  Our  Country. 

(e)  Where  the  Orange  Grows. 


WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS  IO7 

A  Visit  to  a  Woolen  Mill. 
The  Story  of  Silk. 
The  Story  of  Flax. 
Where  Coal  is  Mined. 
Cattle  and  Dairy  Products : 

(a)  On  a  Western  Cattle  Ranch. 

(b)  A  Modern  Dairy  Farm. 

(c)  How  Condensed  Milk  is  Made. 

(d)  Making  Fancy  Cheeses. 

(e)  A  Visit  to  a  Packing  House. 

(f)  Where  Leather  is  Made. 

(g)  Making  Boots  and  Shoes. 
Where  We  Get  Salt. 

The  Iron-Ore  Districts  of  Our  Country. 

A  Lead  Mine. 

In  an  Oil  Field. 

Uncle  Sam's  Money  Factories. 

Where  Gold  is  Mined. 

In  the  Sugar  Bush.. 

Garden  Spots  of  Our  Land. 

Borax  Hunters. 

Pearl  Divers. 

In  a  Paper  Plant. 

Uncle  Sam's  Fisheries: 

(a)  Oyster  Beds  of  the  Chesapeake. 

(b)  Where  the  Big  Red  Salmon  Grows. 

(c)  Cod  and  Mackerel. 

(d)  Fresh-water  Fishing  Here  and  There. 

A  wise  use  of  the  stereopticon  lantern  is  of  great  value 
to  the  geography  class.  (The  teacher  must  take  care  not 
to  do  all  the  reciting.)  In  some  states  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  furnishes  slides  for  this  work.  New 
York,  for  example,  has  taken  special  care  in  the 
preparation  of  slides  showing  the  great  industries,  such  as 
the  manufacture  of  salt  and  steel,  and  the  mining  and 


108   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

preparation  of  coal  for  the  market.  Small  radiopticons 
which  will  throw  the  pictures  on  a  screen  from  an  ordinary 
photograph  or  postcard  should  be  a  part  of  every  school 
equipment.  The  use  of  stereoscopes  and  views  adds  con- 
siderable interest.  The  children  will  vie  with  one  another 
in  bringing  timely  illustrations  from  the  home  collection. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  assign  a  state,  or  a  group  of  states,  or 
country,  to  each  geography  pupil,  and  see  which  one  can 
make  the  best  collection  of  descriptive  cards  and  pictures. 
A  reward  may  be  offered  for  skill  in  the  mounting  of  cards 
and  pictures  on  a  specified  size  of  heavy  paper  or  cloth. 

In  conclusion:  Geography  teaching  that  does  not  make 
the  pupils  eager  to  find  out  all  they  can  about  this  inter- 
esting old  world  of  ours  is  a  failure.  Mere  book  study  will 
not  do  this.  The  text  is  only  the  guide,  and  it  is  all  the 
more  welcome  to  be  frequently  lost  from  view.  Remember 
to  make  the  work  practical.  There  is  no  end  to  what  may 
be  accomplished,  if  only  the  pupils  are  properly  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  interest  and  investigation.  The  travel 
instinct  is  born  in  nearly  everyone;  and  we  all  like  to  jour- 
ney about  —  if  only  in  the  imagination. 

SUGGESTIVE  SUPPLEMENTARY  BOOKS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

For  Primary  Grades: 

Andrews,  Jane.     Seven  Little  Sisters. 

Carpenter,  Frank  G.     Around  the  World  with  the  Children. 

Curtis,  Alice  T.     Story  of  Cotton. 

Button,  S.  T.     Fishing  and  Hunting. 

Fairbanks,  Harold  W.     Home  Geography  for  Primary  Grades, 

Hope,  Ascott  R.     The  World  (Peeps  at  Many  Lands  Series). 

Luther,  Agnes  V.     Trading  and  Exploring. 


WITH  THE  GEOGRAPHY  CLASS  IOp 

Schwartz,  Julia  A.     Five  Little  Strangers. 

Shaw,  E.  R.     Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands. 

Wiley,  Belle,  and  Edick,  Grace.    Children  of  the  Cliff. 

For  Intermediate  and  Advanced  Grades: 

Carpenter,  Frank  G.     Geographical  Readers:  North  America; 

South   America;   Europe;   Asia;    Africa;    Australia    (six 

volumes) . 
Carpenter,  Frank  G.     How  the  World  is  Fed;  How  the  World 

is  Clothed;  How  the  World  is  Housed  (three  volumes). 
Chamberlain  and  Chamberlain.     Geographical  Readers. 
Frye,  A.     Brooks  and  Brook  Basins. 
Hope,  Ascott  R.     The  World  (Peeps  at  Many  Lands  Series). 
Krout,  M.  H.     Alice's  Visit  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
McFee,  Inez  N.     Boys  and  Girls  of  Many  Lands. 
Rocheleau,  W.  F.    Products  of  the  Soil,  and  Great  American 

Industries. 

Starr,  Frederick.     Strange  Peoples. 
National  Geographic  Magazine. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  HYGIENE 

As  the  natural  intellectual  leader  of  a  community,  the 
rural  teacher  can  do  as  much  for  public  health  in  the  coun- 
try as  the  medical  inspector  and  school  nurses  are  doing 
in  the  city.  In  other  words,  the  country  school  teacher 
should  be  a  public  health  educator. 

This  seems  a  rather  formidable  undertaking.  The 
average  teacher  has  had  little  training  throughout  her  school 
course  for  the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene.  Sane 
presentations  of  the  subject  are  both  delicate  and  difficult. 
But  after  all  it  is  not  mere  teaching  of  physiology  that  is 
needed.  The  nurses  and  medical  inspectors  in  the  cities 
do  not  do  this:  they  merely  point  the  way  to  clean  living. 
Physiology  enlightens  the  children  regarding  the  func- 
tions of  that  most  wonderful  machine  of  all,  the  human 
body,  but  it  does  not  protect  them  in  any  way  against 
tuberculosis  from  contaminated  milk  or  typhoid  from  im- 
pure water. 

Far  from  being  too  difficult  to  teach  in  the  common 
schools,  the  subject  of  public  health  can  be  made  both 
interesting  and  understandable.  "  Personal  cleanliness, 
purity  of  food  and  drinks,  the  nature  of  disease,  and  the 
method  of  transference  are  all  things  which  can  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  simplest  terms  and  made  clear  to  the  under- 
standing of  children.  Milk,  its  value  as  a  food,  the  fact 
that  it  is  highly  appreciated  by  bacteria,  and  that  it  is 

no 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   AND   HYGIENE  III 

therefore  necessary  to  protect  it  against  them  —  these  are 
not  too  difficult  for  the  children." l 

More  and  more  we  are  coming  to  realize  the  truth  of  the 
old  adage :  "  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  better  than  a  pound 
of  cure."  Mothers  no  longer  voluntarily  expose  their 
children  to  mumps,  measles,  chicken  pox,  scarlet  fever, 
and  whooping  cough,  thinking  it  is  better  for  them  to  have 
these  diseases  while  they  are  young.  At  the  same  time 
many  mothers  through  ignorance  of  preventive  measures 
in  the  way  of  sanitation  and  the  scientific  preparation  and 
care  of  food,  still  unintentionally  expose  their  children  to 
contagious  and  infectious  diseases. 

Remarkable  results  may  be  expected  to  follow  adequate 
public  health  work  by  teachers  everywhere,  both  in  the 
cities  and  in  rural  districts.  ' '  In  rural  communities  annually 
400,000  persons  die  and  about  2,000,000  others  are  seri- 
ously ill  from  infective  diseases.  If  only  one  half  of  these 
deaths  and  cases  of  sickness  can  be  eliminated,  it  means 
that  an  immense  field  of  useful  work  lies  at  the  hand  of  the 
country  school  teacher  who  will  become  a  public  health 
educator,  and  will  instruct  the  children  and  the  mothers 
and  fathers  how  to  prevent  the  transference  of  poisonous 
bacteria  from  those  who  carry  them  to  those  who  do 
not."1 

A  small  medicine  cabinet  should  be  a  part  of  every  teach- 
er's equipment.  Many  teachers  provide  themselves  with  a 
bottle  of  peroxide,  a  roll  of  absorbent  cotton,  needle 
and  thread,  bandages,  court-plaster,  and  adhesive  tape. 
To  these  should  be  added  three-ounce  bottles  of  listerine, 

1  From  a  bulletin  treating  of  sanitation  in  rural  communities,  published 
by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 


112       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

castor  oil,  formaldehyde,  turpentine,  sweet  oil,  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia,  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  and  dry  sulphur. 
A  quart  of  limewater,  a  clay  pipe,  a  roll  of  flannel,  a  small 
teakettle,  and  an  alcohol  lamp,  are  also  valuable. 

1.  Listerine  is   excellent  for  gargle  in   cases   of   sore 
throat,  and  as  a  mouth  wash. 

2.  Castor  oil,  in  periodic  doses,  will  permanently  cure 
sour  stomach  and  headache  when   hygienic  habits   are 
followed. 

3.  Formaldehyde  is  a  simple  sanitary  remedy  for  sore 
throat  and  tonsillitis.     Fifteen  drops  in  a  half  tumbler  of 
water  and  used  as  a  gargle  every  half  hour  will  speedily 
effect  relief.     Breathing  the  fumes  of  formaldehyde  through 
the  mouth  will  stop  paroxysms  of  coughing.     Even  whoop- 
ing cough  can  be  held  in  check  if  taken  in  time. 

4.  Turpentine  is  well  known  as  a  preventive  of  tetanus 
or  lockjaw.     For  tight  cold  on  the  chest,  nothing  excels  a 
thorough  greasing  with  sweet  oil  to  prevent  blistering,  and 
then  a  generous  application  of  turpentine,  covering  with 
a  piece  of  flannel. 

5.  Sweet  oil,  besides  in  the  use  just  mentioned,  is  a 
valuable  adjunct  in  healing  sore  spots  and  bruises. 

6.  Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  is  useful  as  a  stimulant. 
It  is  also  valuable  in  cases  of  acid  dyspepsia,  nervous  or 
sick  headache,  and  simple  nervousness.     Ten  drops  in  a 
quarter  of  a  tumbler  of  water  is  the  dose  for  a  child;  for  an 
adult  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoonf  ul  in  about  a  third  of  a  tumbler 
of  water.     This  may  be  given  every  fifteen  minutes  until 
three  or  four  doses  have  been  taken. 

7.  Sweet  spirits  of  niter  is  useful  in  allaying  fever.     It 
promotes  healthy  activity  of  skin  and  kidneys  and  will  often 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   AND  HYGIENE  113 

loosen  a  tight  cough.  A  teaspoonful  should  be  put  into 
a  tumbler  of  water.  The  dose  for  a  child  is  a  teaspoonful 
of  the  mixture  every  half  hour;  the  dose  for  an  adult,  one 
tablespoonful. 

8.  Dry  sulphur,  inhaled  through  a  clay  pipe,  is  excellent 
for  ulcerated  sore  throat. 

9.  Limewater  is  excellent  to  settle  a  sick  stomach.     To 
prepare  it,  put  a  piece  of  lime  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  into  a 
quart  of  water,  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few  hours.     Pour  off 
the  clear  liquid  and  bottle  it  for  use.     The  dose  is  a  tea- 
spoonful  in  a  small  glass  of  water. 

Many  states  now  provide  medical  inspectors  for  country 
schools.  These  officers  look  after  the  physical  defects  of 
the  children,  unsanitary  conditions  of  the  school  premises, 
and  such  menaces  as  unadjustable  desks,  dry  sweeping, 
feather  dusters,  shiny  blackboards,  and  the  like.  But 
they  have  no  jurisdiction  over  harassing  school  discipline 
that  wrecks  the  nerves,  excessive  home  study  and  waste  of 
time  upon  subjects  of  no  value;  nor  can  they  do  much 
toward  instituting  habits  of  right  living.  These  fall 
entirely  within  the  scope  of  the  teacher.  It  is  her  business 
to  inculcate  habits  of  health  that  will  tend  to  promote  in- 
dustrial efficiency  in  the  after  life  of  the  child. 

First,  it  will  be  necessary  to  awaken  the  mind  to  a  keen 
appreciation  of  the  need  of  a  good  body.  This  can  be 
done  by  telling  the  children  stories  in  which  the  care, 
cleanliness,  and  health  of  the  body  bear  an  important  part. 
Aim  to  teach  pupils  so  to  care  for  their  bodies,  and  to  have 
such  pride  in  their  preservation,  as  to  keep  these  beautiful 
in  form,  and  the  owners  free  from  degrading  habits.  Several 
informal  talks  and  stories  should  be  given  to  the  pupils 


1 14      THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

before  making  any  attempt  to  introduce  the  subject 
proper. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  an  appreciation  of  the  term  industrial 
efficiency.  Show  that  inefficiency  results  from  chronic 
habits  of  unhealthy  living.  The  user  of  alcohol  will  furnish 
the  most  apt  illustration.  Aside  from  the  penalties  suffered 
by  himself  and  his  family,  he  is  a  menace  to  society;  he 
is  unpunctual,  wastes  material,  disobeys  instructions, 
endangers  others'  lives,  decreases  the  product  of  his  trade 
and  of  his  employer,  lessens  the  profits  of  both,  depresses 
wages,  and  increases  insurance  and  business  risks.  Be- 
cause no  one  can  forsee  when  the  "drop  too  much"  will 
be  taken,  users  of  alcohol  are  not  wanted  in  positions  of 
trust. 

It  has  been  conceded  that  milder  forms  of  unhealthy 
living  interfere  with  industrial  efficiency  even  more  than 
alcoholism.  Often  men  and  women  who  have  received 
thorough  technical  training  fail  to  win  promotion  because 
of  carelessness  in  personal  habits.  Their  clothing  is 
disorderly  and  often  unclean,  their  breath  offensive,  and 
they  have  a  decidedly  unkempt  appearance.  They  plainly 
show  themselves  to  be  the  victims  of  constipation,  headache, 
bad  ventilation  in  the  home,  irregular  meals  and  sleep,  and 
improper  diet.  Too  many  night  parties  and  nicotinism 
also  leave  their  stamp.  Always  one  pays  by  reduced  effi- 
ciency for  intemperance  in  eating,  sleeping,  or  playing.  In 
paying  his  employees  for  piece  work,  instead  of  by  the  hour, 
day,  or  week,  the  employer  partially  protects  himself 
against  uneven,  sluggish,  slip-shod  workmen;  but,  other 
things  being  equal,  his  promotions  are  awarded  to  those  who 
keep  themselves  up  to  the  standard  of  excellence,  for  he 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  HYGIENE  11$ 

knows  that  the  man  who  does  even,  steady  work  has  the 
best  earning  capacity  and  deserves  the  best  recognition. 

Now  comes  the  query,  what  general  health  habits  should 
be  observed  by  all?  The  following  adaptation  of  daily, 
routine  may  be  practiced: 

1.  Throw  the  bedding  over  the  foot  of  the  bed. 

2.  If  the  weather  demands,  close  the  window  that  has 
been  open  during  the  night,  until  you  are  ready  to  leave 
the  room. 

3.  Bathe  the  face,  neck,  chest,  crotch,  and   armpits. 
Finish  with  cold  water.     Give  particular  attention  to  the 
eyes,  ears,  and  nose.     If  time  and  conveniences  permit, 
bathe  the  entire  body. 

4.  Cleanse  the  finger  nails. 

5.  Cleanse  the  teeth,  especially  the  places  that  are  out 
of  sight  and  hard  to  reach. 

6.  Breakfast    punctually    at    a    regular    hour.    Eat 
lightly  and  only  what  agrees  with  you. 

7.  Visit  the  toilet  at  a  regular  time. 

8.  Have  several  minutes  in  the  open  air,  preferably 
walking. 

9.  Be  punctual  at  work,  and  insist  on  a  supply  of  fresh 
air  in  the  workroom. 

10.  Eat  punctually  at  the  noon  hour,  and  enjoy  the 
meal. 

11.  Be  regular,  temperate,  and  leisurely  in  eating  the 
evening  meal;  eat  nothing  that  disagrees  with  you. 

12.  Spend  the  evening  profitably  and  pleasantly  and  in 
ways  compatible  with  the  foregoing  habits. 

13.  Retire  at  a  fixed  hour,  making  up  for  irregularity 
by  an  earlier  hour  next  night. 


Il6      THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

14.  Repeat  3  and  5. 

15.  Turn  underclothes  wrong  side  out  for  ventilation. 

16.  Open  windows. 

17.  Relax  mind  and  body  and  go  to  sleep. 

These  rules  are,  of  course,  for  the  adult.  The  teacher 
may  well  accept  them  as  her  own  safeguard,  and  she  will 
be  able  readily  to  adapt  them  for  the  use  of  the  pupils.  A 
few  simple  health  rules  may  well  be  written  upon  the  black- 
board, or  pinned  up  where  all  can  read.  The  following  are 
suggestive : 

1.  Health  is  wealth. 

2.  Breathe  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

3.  Do  not  put  anything  into  your  mouth  except  food 
and  drink. 

4.  Keep  your  face,  hands,  and  finger  nails  clean. 

5.  Keep  the  teeth   clean,  and  the  breath  pure  and 
sweet. 

6.  Avoid  draughts. 

7.  Do  not  sit  with  wet  feet  or  damp  clothing. 

8.  Breathe,  sit,  stand  and  walk  correctly.     In  so  doing 
you  will  do  more  to  prevent  consumption  than  many 
physicians  combined. 

9.  Go  to  bed  early,  rise  early,  exercise  regularly. 

10.  Bathe  frequently. 

11.  Do  not  overeat.     Keep  the  bowel  action  regular. 

12.  Learn  to  use  rightly  and  take  proper  care  of  every 
part  of  the  body. 

"A  perfect  body  makes  a  chariot  in  which  a  heroic  soul 
may  well  be  proud  to  ride.1  "     The  children  realize  this 
and  are  quick  to  see  that  if  they  learn  the  laws  which  govern 
1  Henry  Ward  Beecher. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  HYGIENE  117 

the  development  of  the  body  and  its  maintenance  in  a  con- 
dition of  health,  and  follow  them,  they  will  grow  up  strong 
and  well.  On  the  other  hand,  if  through  neglect  or  igno- 
rance, they  violate  these  laws,  they  will  not  have  the  strength 
which  they  might  have  had,  and  they  will  be  more  likely 
to  contract  disease.  Each  one  should  learn  the  substances 
which  his  body  needs  for  its  nutrition  and  work,  and  how  it 
uses  them;  why  he  eats  and  drinks,  why  he  exercises,  why 
he  needs  pure  air.  The  earlier  this  knowledge  is  acquired, 
the  better,  for  it  is  in  youth  that  the  tissues  are  developing 
and  taking  their  form,  and  any  neglect  of  health  laws  may 
result  in  a  permanent  deformity  of  the  body.  Thus,  a 
boy  who  interferes  with  the  development  of  his  tissues  by 
the  use  of  tobacco  must  carry  these  undeveloped  parts  all 
his  life,  as  they  cannot  grow  after  the  period  of  growth 
and  formation  is  past.  The  child  who,  through  poor  food, 
becomes  rickety  (rachitic)  and  gets  deformed  bones,  carries 
these  bones  to  the  grave.  The  girl  who  walks  with  bent 
shoulders  while  bones  are  forming  will  be  round-shouldered 
for  life,  as  the  shape  of  the  frame  is  fixed  in  youth. 

"When  once  the  child  is  taught  the  importance  and  lan- 
guage of  movement,  and  the  reflex  action  upon  his  charac- 
ter, he  will  no  more  shuffle  his  feet  or  slam  the  door  than  he 
will  permit  slang  or  profanity  to  pass  his  lips.  First  awaken 
in  the  man  an  appreciation  of  the  necessity  for  a  good  body; 
then,  practice,  for  the  purpose  of  developing  the  physical 
being,  becomes  a  pleasure.  Boys  can  be  won  to  earnest  work 
by  suggestions  as  to  the  importance  of  strength  and  manliness. 
They  can  easily  be  led  to  see  the  commercial  value  put 
upon  a  good  form  and  courteous  bearing  by  the  business 
world.  Tell  them  of  the  boy  whose  healthful,  gentlemanly 


Il8   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

appearance  won  him  a  position  over  a  crowd  of  careless, 
slouching  competitors.  Girls  are  pleased  with  the  attain- 
ments of  grace  and  beauty,  while  all  acknowledge  the 
universal  demand  for  health  and  good  manners."  1 

An  engineer  or  a  mechanic  may  repair  and  improve  his 
machine.  We  may,  in  like  manner,  improve  our  body- 
machines.  By  following  certain  rules  in  physical  culture 
and  training  we  may  develop  strength,  poise,  grace,  en- 
durance, what  we  will.  Imbue  the  pupils  with  this  idea; 
then  take  them  into  training.  Nothing  will  arouse  slug- 
gish, inattentive,  mischievously  inclined  pupils  so  quickly 
and  effectively  as  a  few  minutes'  drill  in  calisthenics,  with 
the  doors  and  windows  opened  wide. 

First,  develop  the  requisites  for  a  graceful,  well-poised 
body;  learn  to  sit,  stand,  and  walk  correctly.  The  Greeks 
claimed  that  character  is  revealed  by  gait.  We  have  often 
proved  this  true.  Have  we  not  determined  a  person's 
mood  by  the  way  he  walks?  And  have  we  not  in  a  great 
measure  determined  the  character  of  a  stranger  by  his 
bearing?  Good  walking  is  simply  one  perfect  poise  of  the 
body  following  another  in  continued  succession.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  of  exercises.  Emerson,  who  was  an  admirable 
walker, — light,  erect,  and  strong  of  limb,  once  said  that  the 
strength  of  the  sole-leather  had  gone  into  the  fiber  of  the 
body,  when  the  shoes  were  worn  out. 

The  correct  standing  position  is:  head  up,  chin  in,  chest 
expanded,  shoulders  back  and  down,  abdomen  in,  hips 
thrown  back.  If  the  body  is  hi  the  right  posture,  it 
should  be  possible  to  see  the  toes  by  simply  dropping  the 
head  without  changing  the  position  of  the  shoulders. 

1  Anna  Morris.    Physical  Education. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  HYGIENE  II 9 

Pupils  should  practice  standing  correctly  until  the  muscular 
sense  has  become  so  accustomed  to  it  that  the  body  will 
feel  uncomfortable  in  a  stooping  or  crooked  position.  It  is 
good  practice  to  walk  about  with  some  light  object,  such 
as  a  bean  bag,  on  the  head.  This  is  an  excellent  device 
for  obtaining  the  correct  position  hi  stair  climbing.  Never 
run  upstairs. 

Try  the  following  devices  for  poise  and  self-possession: 

1.  Position,  letting  the  weight  rest  principally  upon  the 
balls  of  the  feet.    Rise  as  high  as  possible  on  the  toes,  then 
sink  back  to  position.     Repeat  several  tunes. 

2.  Advance  the  right  foot  its  length,  then  rise  high  on 
the  toes,  settle  the  weight  on  the  advanced  foot,  keeping 
up  back  heel;  rise  again  on  toes  and  change  the  weight  to 
back  foot,  keeping  up  front  heel,  and  so  continue  to  al- 
ternate. 

3.  Advance' the  left  foot  and  repeat  2. 

4.  Feet  side  by  side,  and  squarely  on  the  floor.    Sway 
the  body,  changing  the  weight  alternately  to  balls  and 
heels.    Don't  raise  the  feet. 

5.  Without  raising  the  feet,  change  the  weight  to  the 
right  foot,  then  to  the  left,  and  so  alternate. 

6.  Incline  the  head  obliquely  forward  to  the  right,  and 
body  obliquely  to  the  left.     Reverse,  keeping  feet  on  the 
floor. 

7.  Weight  on  both  feet,  rotate  the  body  at  waist  line  to 
the  right,  and  head  to  the  left.     Reverse.     Do  not  raise 
feet. 

(Slow  march  music  may  be  used  if  desired.) 
The  following  exercises  are  restful  when  the  pupils  have 
been  steadily  employed  at  their  desks: 


120   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

1.  Place  a  wand  across  the  back,  letting  it  run  out 
through  the  bent  elbows,  rest  the  hands  on  the  chest  so  as 
to  press  the  arms  and  shoulders  back,  and  march  about. 

2.  Extend  the  left  arm  from  the  shoulder  upward  and 
grasp  a  dumb-bell.     Lower  the  arm  on  the  other  side,  and 
with  this  hand  support  a  heavy  weight. 

3.  Raise  the  arms  high  above  the  head,  place  the  tips  of 
the  fingers  together,  and  describe  a  half-circle  toward  the 
floor  without  bending  the  knees. 

4.  Take  a  weight  in  the  hands  and  perform  the  hewing 
exercise,  similar  to  the  motions  employed  by  the  wood- 
chopper.     Practice  with  the  real  article  is  highly  desirable. 

Dwell  at  some  length  upon  the  value  of  exercise  and 
deep  breathing.  Following  is  a  partial  list  of  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  exercise  and  deep  breathing: 

1.  The  circulation  is  stimulated  and  the  blood  is  en- 
riched. 

2.  Headache  is  relieved. 

3.  The  chest  is  enlarged,  the  form  and  size  of  the  abdo- 
men are  improved. 

4.  Constipation  and  biliousness  are  cured. 

5.  Weak  lungs  are  strengthened. 

After  practicing  some  simple  breathing  exercises,  try 
the  following  exercise  adapted  to  the  tune  of  "Hail 
Columbia." 

Position:    Stand  erect,  hands  at  sides,  fingers  closed. 

1 .  Inhale  deeply  through  the  nostrils  during  the  first  two 
measures. 

2.  Strike  lightly  upon  left  side  of  chest  with  right  hand. 

3.  Strike  lightly  upon  right  side  of  chest  with  left  hand. 

4.  5,  6.  Repeat  2  and  3  and  2. 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   AND  HYGIENE  121 

Nos.  2-6  should  be  performed  in  two  measures,  while 
holding  breath. 

7.  Exhale  through  the  mouth  during  the  fifth  and  sixth 
measures. 

Repeat  1-7  until  the  tune  is  finished.1 

What  is  the  best  exercise?  That  exercise  which  a  person 
most  enjoys  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  him.  But  one 
should  choose  various  forms  so  that  the  muscles  throughout 
the  body  may  be  developed.  Walking  and  running  de- 
velop the  muscles  of  the  legs;  rowing,  the  arms,  back  and 
legs;  horseback  riding,  the  legs  and  trunk.  All  vigorous 
exercise  develops  the  muscles  of  respiration  and  the  heart, 
and  stimulates  the  digestive  organs.  Such  games  as 
basket  ball,  baseball,  and  tennis  are  excellent  exercises. 
When  out-of-door  exercise  is  not  possible,  special  exercises 
may  be  practiced  to  develop  the  muscles.  Chest-weight 
pulling,  dumb-bell  and  club  swinging,  in  a  well-ventilated 
hall  or  room,  are  splendid. 

Girls  may  find  good  exercise  in  helping  with  the  house- 
work. But  this,  as  well  as  special  exercises,  must  be 
conscious.  "Walking  forms  a  large  part  of  household 
exercise,  and  it  is  most  necessary  to  do  this  correctly  in 
order  to  reap  its  benefits.  Always  remember  to  hold  the 
chin  in  and  let  the  chest  lead.  Draw  in  the  abdomen,  and 
the  shoulders  will  naturally  fall  into  the  proper  place. 
Then,  with  deep  breathing  through  your  nose  you  will  not 
run  much  risk  of  injury  from  housework.  Remember  to 
bend  only  at  the  hips;  do  not  bend  at  the  waist;  this  will  give 
you  a  good  poise,  and  keep  your  back  straight.  You  can 
develop  your  figure  just  as  well  by  means  of  housework,  if 

1  James  H.  Smart.    Manual  of  School  Gymnastics. 


122   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

you  do  it  properly,  as  by  a  special  system  of  physical  cul- 
ture. The  movements  used  in  scrubbing,  sweeping, 
washing  windows,  bread-kneading,  and  bed-making,  develop 
the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  chest  and  improve  all  this 
part  of  the  body.  Do  not  forget  when  ironing  to  apply 
the  principle  of  double-sided  development,  which  is  an 
important  point  in  all  housework."  1 

The  object  of  all  muscular  exercise  is  not  to  develop 
modern  Samsons,  but  to  attain  perfection  in  intellectual 
and  spiritual  things.  A  man  can  use  his  mind  more 
efficiently  if  he  has  good  circulation  and  perfect  digestion, 
and  these  things  will  be  granted  unto  him  if  he  but  exercise 
sufficiently.  Heaviness  and  inaptitude  for  work  are  com- 
mon to  people  who  do  not  take  exercise  enough  to  keep 
their  circulation  from  becoming  sluggish. 

All  the  exercises  necessary  for  the  proper  development  of 
the  body  may  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  a  few  simple 
contrivances,  such  as  the  Indian  club,  the  wand,  the  ring, 
and  the  light  wooden  dumb-bell.  There  is,  therefore, 
really  no  reason  why  physical  "training  should  not  be  a 
part  of  every  school  curriculum.  In  ancient  Greece, 
physical  exercises  in  the  schools  were  prescribed  and  regu- 
lated by  law.  Some  time  we  shall  have  advanced  that  far. 

By  application  to  the  Commissioner  of  Education  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  many  helpful  booklets  on  school  hygiene 
may  be  had. 

Other  valuable  references  are:    Gulick,  L.  H.,  Physical 
Education  by  Muscular  Exercise;  Hancock's  Physical  Train- 
ing for  Children  by  Japanese  Methods. 
1  Emma  E.  Walker.    Beauty  through  Hygiene. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
LITERATURE  AND  COMPOSITION 

The  importance  of  literature  and  composition  in  com- 
mon schools  cannot  be  overestimated,  and  yet  college 
entrance  examinations  prove  that  attention  to  this  matter 
is  greatly  needed.  How  many  of  our  graduates  are  unable 
to  write  good  English  or  to  appreciate  good  literature! 

"We  teach  a  little  arithmetic,  a  little  geography,  a  little 
history,  some  spelling,  reading,  writing,  a  little  of  some 
of  the  sciences,  and  if  we  stop  here  we  have  done  little 
indeed  —  ignoring  the  greatest  and  best  of  all  that  we 
might  and  should  have  taught.  The  teacher  who  fails  to 
give  a  large  share  of  time  and  attention  to  the  careful  mem- 
orizing, the  study,  and  the  enjoyment  of  fine  things  in 
literature  is  woefully  at  fault.  The  boy  or  girl  who  has 
been  at  school  for  six  or  eight  years  should  go  out  into  life 
with  a  wealth  of  good  things  in  literature  securely  lodged  in 
the  memory,  that  shall  mold  his  taste,  give  color  to  his 
thought,  and  influence  his  daily  life."  l 

To  acquaint  the  pupils  with  the  best  thought  of  man  in  its 
best  form,  to  encourage  the  youths  to  make  such  thoughts 
their  own,  and  come  to  love  them  and  so  to  live  them, 
ought  to  be  the  high  purpose  of  all  school  teaching.  "It 
is  for  you  to  so  tram  the  pupils  that  they  can  go  to  Tenny- 
son and  Shakespeare,  Dante  and  Goethe,  and  get  more 
pleasure  out  of  it  than  from  Lazare  and  its  family.  You 
1 J.  P.  McCaskey. 

123 


124       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

may  have  to  introduce  these  things  by  way  of  a  stepping- 
stone;  but  let  your  aim  always  be  to  get  something  worth 
while.  Thus  we  may  show  them  the  literary  power  of 
their  own  experience,  and  teach  them  to  express  it  with 
joy;  we  may  open  to  them  the  inspiring  literature  of  all 
time,  so  they  will  read  with  delighted  appreciation;  and 
all  this  helps  to  equip  them  for  life,  to  bear  its  burdens  and 
meet  its  sorrows  and  troubles."  1 

For  a  very  long  time  it  was  thought  almost  universally 
that  formal  grammar  was  the  true  basis  of  all  teaching  of 
English.  But  now  the  wisest  teachers  agree  that  children 
cannot  be  trained  to  speak  or  write  correctly  by  parsing 
according  to  Latinized  formulas.  They  will  never  learn 
to  construct  a  good  sentence  by  analyzing  complex  or  com- 
pound sentences,  or  by  memorizing  and  repeating  the  rules 
of  syntax,  though  this  method  be  followed  until  they  grow 
gray.  Many  great  authors  never  studied  the  art  of  com- 
position; but  they  read  a  multitude  of  the  best  books,  and 
had  the  faculty  of  learning  how  to  compose  by  studying 
the  compositions  of  others,  while  at  the  same  tune  they 
cultivated  literary  tastes  and  added  to  their  stock  of  general 
information. 

It  is  possible  to  teach  children  to  express  with  joy  and 
delight  what  is  seen  and  felt.  Too  often  written  work  is  a 
task,  when  it  should  be  a  pleasure.  The  reason  why  the 
bare  mention  of  a  composition  is  sometimes  enough  to 
produce  signs  of  rebellion  in  an  ordinarily  obedient  school, 
is  because  the  pupils  do  not  know  how  to  go  about  writing  it. 
It  is  as  though  they  were  ordered  to  build  a  steam  threshing 
machine,  or  to  prove  that  the  moon  is  inhabited.  They 

1  Blaisdell. 


LITERATURE   AND  COMPOSITION  12$ 

have  not  the  ability  to  express  what  few  ideas  they  may 
have  upon  the  subject  given.  There  is  a  feeling  of  help- 
lessness that  comes  from  lack  of  practice  or  lack  of 
interest,  and  their  best  work  appears  to  them  crude  and 
incomplete. 

Composition  work  should  be  gradual  and  systematic. 
There  are  various  exercises  which  may  precede  and  in- 
troduce the  work  of  purely  original  composition,  and  which 
are  so  interesting  that  the  pupils  will  regard  them  as 
recreations.  Among  these  are  exercises  in  making  ab- 
stracts, outlines,  amplifications,  and  paraphrases,  the  more 
simple  of  which  should  engage  the  attention  of  the  younger 
pupils  especially.  Some  illustrations  of  these  forms  are 
given  here,  as  suggestions  to  the  teacher: 

The  Abstract.  An  abstract  is  a  condensed  form  of  the 
work  of  another.  It  should  contain  in  substance  all  the 
principal  thoughts  and  events  of  the  original,  but  should  be 
expressed  in  shorter  form,  omitting  many  details.  At 
first  it  is  best  to  read  a  short,  pointed  story  to  the  pupils, 
and  have  them  prepare  their  abstract  from  memory. 
The  familiar  and  true  story  which  Cowper  tells  of  John 
Gilpin  affords  an  excellent  exercise  in  making  abstracts. 
While  told  at  considerable  length,  it  may  be  condensed  into 
the  following  brief  narration: 

"John  Gilpin  was  a  well-known  merchant  of  London,  and 
a  captain  of  the  militia.  When  he  had  been  married  twenty 
years,  he  agreed  that  all  his  family  should  celebrate  his 
wedding  day  by  going  to  Edmonton,  a  few  miles  away,  and 
taking  dinner  with  him  at  a  hotel  called  "The  Bell."  His 
wife,  with  the  three  children,  her  sister,  and  her  niece,  went 
in  a  carriage.  Mr.  Gilpin  was  to  ride  behind,  upon  a  horse 
which  he  had  borrowed  from  his  friend,  a  calender  (or  finisher 


126       THE  TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

of  cloth)  by  trade,  who  lived  ten  miles  from  Edmonton.  He 
was  delayed  in  starting  by  waiting  on  a  customer  at  his 
store.  He  set  out  at  length  wearing  his  long  cloak,  and  a 
leather  belt,  to  which  he  fastened  two  jugs  of  wine  which 
his  wife  had  forgotten  to  take.  He  was  not  used  to  horse- 
back riding,  and  could  not  manage  the  horse.  Fearing  he 
should  fall,  when  it  began  to  gallop  he  seized  hold  of  its  mane. 
This  caused  it  to  run  all  the  faster.  Mr.  Gilpin's  hat  and 
wig  blew  off,  and  then  his  cloak  also,  for  the  loop  which  tied 
it  broke.  The  jugs  were  thrown  violently  upward  in  the 
gallop,  and  broke,  the  wine  falling  upon  the  horse  and  causing 
it  to  run  still  harder.  The  gatemen  along  the  road  opened 
the  gates  for  Mr.  Gilpin  to  pass,  thinking  he  was  running  a 
race.  From  the  hotel  porch  Mrs.  Gilpin  saw  him  going  by 
with  great  speed,  and  called  to  him,  but  he  could  not  stop. 
The  furious  ride  continued  until  the  house  of  the  calender 
was  reached.  That  gentleman  brought  out  his  own  hat  and 
wig  for  Mr.  Gilpin,  and  encouraged  him  to  ride  back  to 
Edmonton.  Just  then  a  donkey  brayed,  and  the  frightened 
horse  started  back  to  London  with  its  rider.  The  calender's 
hat  and  wig  blew  off  at  once,  for  they  were  too  large.  Mrs. 
Gilpin,  in  alarm,  had  sent  a  boy  on  a  horse  after  her  husband. 
The  boy  met  him  coming  back,  and,  turning  around,  tried  to 
overtake  him.  This  chase  led  people  to  think  Mr.  Gilpin 
was  a  robber,  and  several  horsemen  began  to  pursue  him  with 
loud  cries.  The  gatemen  all  thought  as  before,  that  Mr.  Gil- 
pin  was  riding  a  race,  and  threw  the  gates  open  before  him. 
The  chase  never  ceased  until  the  poor  man  was  carried  by 
the  runaway  horse  to  the  store  in  London  from  which  he  first 
started.  Mr.  Gilpin's  unhappy  wedding  day  was  the  subject 
of  much  sport  to  his  acquaintances."  1 

In  preparing  an  abstract  of  long  selections,  care  must  be 
taken  to  emphasize  the  parts  of  the  story  in  the  order  of 
their  importance.     The  pupils  should  tell  the  story  briefly 
*  From  C,  W,  Mann's,  School  Recreations  and  Amusements. 


LITERATURE   AND  COMPOSITION  127 

and  clearly  in  their  own  words.  Among  the  poems  suit- 
able for  this  purpose  are:  "The  Blind  Men  and  the  Ele- 
phant/' by  Saxe;  "The  Lord  of  Burleigh,"  and  "The  Lady 
of  Shalott,"  by  Tennyson;  "Cobbler  Keezar's  Vision,"  and 
"King  Solomon  and  the  Ants,"  by  Whittier;  "The  Village 
Blacksmith,"  "The  Slave's  Dream,"  and  "Paul  Revere's 
Ride,"  by  Longfellow;  "Lady  Yeardley's  Guest,"  by 
Preston. 

The  Outline.  An  outline  differs  from  an  abstract  in  that 
it  includes  merely  the  headings  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
story  or  poem.  Usually  a  selection  will  naturally  divide 
itself  into  three  parts  —  the  introduction,  the  story,  and  the 
conclusion.  If  the  selection  is  long,  these  principal  di- 
visions may  be  divided  into  subheads.  Only  short  stories 
or  poems  should  be  given  to  beginners.  As  an  example, 
here  is  an  outline  of  "The  Schoolmaster's  Guests,"  by 
Will  Carleton: 

I.  The  Introduction: 

1.  The  master. 

2.  The  pupils. 

3.  The  room. 

II.  The  Story: 

1.  Arrival  of  district  fathers. 

2.  Object  of  their  visit. 

3.  Complaints  made  by  the  spokesman. 

III.  The  Conclusion: 

1.  Jim's  trick. 

2.  Abrupt  ending  of  the  complaints. 

3.  Mirth  of  the  school. 

4.  Departure  of  the  irate  squires. 


128   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Amplification.  Amplification  is  the  expansion  of  the 
author's  thought,  and  is  of  great  value  as  it  leads  directly 
to  original  composition.  Care  and  thought  are  required  for 
its  preparation,  because  it  implies  the  addition  of  facts  or 
incidents  that  are  not  really  in  the  story,  and  these  must  be 
in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  selection.  The  pupil  should 
master  the  story,  noting  the  order  and  relation  of  all  the 
principal  points.  He  may  then  supply  all  the  incidents 
that  would  have  been  likely  to  occur,  and  form  the  whole 
into  a  connected  story,  avoiding  as  far  as  possible  the  use 
of  the  author's  words.  At  first,  simple  sentences  should 
be  used;  later  on,  paragraphs;  and  finally,  poems  or  other 
connected  narrations.  Short  poems  often  afford  the  best 
exercises  for  amplification,  and  many  may  be  taken  from 
the  works  of  Longfellow,  Whittier,  and  Saxe.  The  follow- 
ing passages  from  Whittier 's  "Snow  Bound"  will  illustrate. 

The  old  familiar  sights  of  ours 

Took  marvelous  shapes;  strange  domes  and  towers 

Rose  up  where  sty  and  corncrib  stood, 

Or  garden  wall,  or  belt  of  wood; 

A  smooth  white  mound  the  brush  pile  showed, 

A  fenceless  drift  what  once  was  road; 

The  bridle  post  an  old  man  sat 

With  loose-flung  coat  and  high  cocked  hat; 

The  well  curb  had  a  Chinese  roof; 

And  even  the  long  sweep,  high  aloof, 

In  its  slant  splendor  seemed  to  tell 

Of  Pisa's  leaning  miracle. 

Shut  in  from  all  the  world  without, 
We  sat  the  clean-winged  hearth  about, 
Content  to  let  the  north  wind  roar 
In  baffled  rage  at  pane  and  door, 


LITERATURE    AND   COMPOSITION  12  9 

While  the  red  logs  before  us  beat 

The  frost  line  back  with  tropic  heat; 

And  ever,  when  a  louder  blast 

Shook  beam  and  rafter  as  it  passed, 

The  merrier  up  its  roaring  draught 

The  great  throat  of  the  chimney  laughed. 

The  house  dog  on  his  paws  outspread 
Laid  to  the  fire  his  drowsy  head, 
The  cat's  dark  silhouette  on  the  wall 
A  couchant  tiger's  seemed  to  fall; 
And,  for  the  winter  fireside  meet, 
Between  the  andirons'  straggling  feet 
The  mug  of  cider  simmered  slow, 
The  apples  sputtered  in  a  row, 
And,  close  at  hand,  the  basket  stood 
With  nuts  from  brown  October's  wood. 

The  sky  had  been  gray  and  heavy  for  several  days,  and 
when  the  wind  veered  to  the  east,  Uncle  Moses,  who  was 
skilled  in  reading  signs,  foretold  a  heavy  snowstorm.  Before 
our  early  bedtime  came,  his  prophecy  proved  true.  The 
wind  blew  a  perfect  gale,  drifting  and  piling  up  the  snow- 
flakes  as  they  fell.  The  window  frames  were  soon  heaped 
with  snow,  and  through  the  glass  the  posts  of  the  clothesline 
looked  like  tall  and  sheeted  ghosts. 

All  that  night  and  the  next  day  the  storm  raged,  and, 
when  the  second  morning  dawned  bright  and  clear,  we  looked 
out  upon  a  universe  of  sky  and  snow.  Instead  of  our  old 
familiar  sights,  we  saw  strange  domes  and  towers  where  the 
woodpile,  garden  wall,  pigpen,  and  corncrib  stood.  The 
trees  and  barn  roofs  were  weighted  with  snow,  and  the  old 
brush  pile  looked  like  a  huge  mound.  The  road  was  drifted 
so  full  that  there  was  not  a  fence  post  in  sight  on  either 
side.  Our  old  bridle  post,  near  the  garden  gate,  resembled 
an  old  man  in  a  high  cocked  hat,  with  his  cloak  gathered 


130       THE  TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

loosely  around  him.  The  well  curb  had  a  Chinese  roof,  and  its 
long  slanting  sweep  reminded  us  of  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa. 

It  was  bitter  cold,  and  we  spent  the  day  caring  for  the 
suffering  animals,  shoveling  snow  from  the  burdened  roofs, 
and  making  paths.  We  worked  with  a  will,  but  were  well 
content  when  the  twilight  of  the  short  December  day  left 
us  free  to  gather  about  the  clean-winged  hearth.  We  were 
shut  in  from  all  the  world,  and  the  north  wind  roared  in 
baffled  rage  at  the  doors  and  window  frames.  But  it  mattered 
little  to  us  how  the  night  behaved,  for  the  red  logs  glowed 
cheerfully  before  us,  and,  when  a  louder  blast  shook  the 
beams  and  rafters,  the  great  throat  of  the  roaring  chimney 
laughed  more  merrily  than  ever. 

We  presented  a  picture  of  cozy,  quiet  cheerfulness  before 
the  fire  that  night.  Our  schoolmaster  was  with  us,  and  had 
signified  his  willingness  to  read  aloud  from  Burns.  This 
was  sufficient  to  drive  us  boys  delightedly  into  the  chimney 
corner,  where  we  curled  up  on  the  floor  close  beside  our 
Uncle's  bench.  Father,  thoroughly  tired  after  his  day  of 
care,  nodded  drowsily  in  his  armchair  near  mother's  swiftly 
turning  spinning  wheel.  Our  grave  elder  sister,  Mary,  worked 
busily  at  her  patchwork.  Old  Bose  lay  close  beside  her 
with  his  drowsy  head  on  his  paws,  starting  fitfully,  every 
now  and  then,  as  he  dreamed  of  some  lost  sheep  buried  in  the 
snow;  while  the  house  cat  rubbed  gently  against  Aunt, 
mutely  beseeching  her  to  lay  aside  her  shining  knitting 
needles.  On  the  braided  rug  before  the  fire,  sister  Elizabeth, 
the  youngest  and  dearest,  carefully  watched  the  row  of 
roasting,  sputtering  apples.  A  mug  of  cider  simmered 
slowly  between  the  andirons'  straggling  feet,  and  near  by  on  a 
stand,  convenient  to  us  all,  stood  a  large  basket  of  nuts. 
Small  wonder  that  all  the  snow  and  wind  could  not  quench 
the  cheerfulness  round  our  hearth  fire's  ruddy  glow! 

Paraphrasing.     A  paraphrase  is  a  translation  of  the 
thoughts  of  another  into  language  of  our  own.    It  assists  the 


LITERATURE   AND   COMPOSITION  13! 

pupil  to  get  the  author's  meaning  and  emphasizes  the 
choice  of  right  words  and  the  value  of  clearness  and  proper 
arrangement.  Select  a  sentence  of  Disraeli,  Besant,  or 
John  Henry  Newman,  and  have  the  pupils  paraphrase  it 
as  a  means  of  calling  attention  to  the  strength  of  the  sen- 
tence itself.  Poems  may  be  paraphrased  to  illustrate  the 
difference  between  the  language  of  poetry  and  that  of  prose. 

Letter  Writing.  At  the  present  time,  letter  writing  may 
almost  be  classed  among  the  lost  arts.  In  the  days  of  our 
grandmothers,  school  girls  did  not  sit  down  with  a  large 
book  on  their  knees  for  a  desk,  and  dash  off  stray  thoughts 
with  a  stub  pencil  on  any  kind  of  paper.  We  would  not 
wish  to  revive  the  elegant  letter  writing  of  former  days  or 
the  formality  of  the  old-time  correspondence  between  mem- 
bers of  the  same  family,  but  we  would  advocate  teaching 
the  pupils  to  write  neat,  entertaining  letters,  expressed  in 
good  English.  The  letters  of  Cowper,  Thackeray,  Frank- 
lin, Lowell,  and  Motley,  may  profitably  be  read  by  teachers 
and  pupils.  For  a  study  of  style,  the  student  of  literature 
will  find  Andrew  Lang's  Letters  to  Dead  Authors  especially 
valuable.  In  a  number  of  these  letters  every  idiosyncrasy 
and  personal  trait  of  the  dead  author's  style  is  cleverly 
imitated. 

Composition  Proper.  Among  the  earliest  forms  which 
the  pupil  may  profitably  take  up  are  biographical,  his- 
torical, and  geographical  sketches.  Here  books  of  refer- 
ence are  necessary,  and  the  teacher  should  guard  against 
the  pupils'  copying.  Many  pupils  give  no  thought  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  deceiving  or  injuring  no  one  but  them- 
selves, and  make  fairly  readable  compositions  by  skim- 
ming and  uniting  the  thoughts  of  others.  Descriptive 


132       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

composition  comes  next  in  line,  and  teachers  will  experience 
no  difficulty  if  pupils  are  asked  to  write  about  familiar 
things.  To  be  successful  in  description  the  pupil  must  be 
able  to  observe  closely.  With  advanced  pupils,  a  study  of 
objects  that  are  similar  or  are  intimately  related,  with  a 
view  to  finding  out  their  differences,  will  be  found  valuable 
in  preliminary  work.  They  may  also  study  and  analyze 
passages  chosen  from  Ruskin,  Dickens,  Macaulay,  Scott, 
and  from  other  masters  of  descriptive  prose.  Romance 
writing  should  not  be  attempted  by  beginners  in  literature. 
Teach  the  pupils  that  the  test  of  romance  writing  is  not 
that  it  be  true,  but  that  it  be  possible  and  consistent. 
This  principle  should  be  the  guiding  one  in  the  formation 
of  the  plot.  After  the  plot  is  constructed,  the  setting  may 
be  determined  —  for  upon  this  its  successful  development 
will  depend.  When  all  these  questions  are  settled,  the 
action  of  the  story  may  begin.  Endeavor  to  make  the 
first  sentence  so  interesting  that  it  will  attract  attention, 
and  show  the  traits  of  the  characters  by  their  action  and 
by  their  conversation,  rather  than  by  narrative.  Be  sure 
to  stop  when  the  story  is  told.  For  beginners  the  subject 
should  be  simple  and  well-known.  The  plot  should  not 
contain  too  many  incidents,  or  any  feature  that  is  clearly 
impossible. 

The  subjects  mentioned  in  this  chapter  have  been  sug- 
gested as  examples  rather  than  with  the  idea  of  presenting 
anything  like  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  literature  and 
composition.  But  little  has  been  said  of  the  prime  pur- 
pose of  all  English  work  —  the  cultivation  of  a  taste  for 
literature.  However,  a  pupil  will  rarely  be  found  who, 
while  able  to  express  himself  clearly  and  intelligently,  is 


LITERATURE    AND   COMPOSITION  133 

yet  unable  to  appreciate  whatever  is  best  in  literature. 
Some  teachers  will  exclaim  that  they  have  little  or  no  time 
for  such  work.  They  should  make  time.  If  they  were  to 
give  a  morning  each  week  to  literature  and  composition, 
and  to  this  alone,  permitting  nothing  to  interfere,  they  would 
soon  find  it  the  very  best  of  school  work. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 

"No  one  thing,"  says  Horace  Mann,  "will  contribute 
more  to  intelligent  reading  than  a  well-selected  school 
library."  It  is  a  necessity  in  every  school.  By  daily 
companionship  we  learn  the  right  uses  of  books;  we  soon 
come  to  regard  them  as  dearly  loved  friends  for  whom  we 
would  sacrifice  a  great  deal.  Think  of  the  great  men  who 
have  gone  without  the  necessities  of  life  that  they  might 
buy  books!  "Nothing  is  so  unhomelike  as  a  bookless 
home,  unless  it  is  a  house  whose  books  betray  a  vulgar 
and  narrow  conception  of  life.  A  man's  books  form  an 
average  portrait  of  himself.  Without  books,  a  merchant's 
palace  becomes  but  a  prison;  the  trail  of  the  upholsterer 
is  over  it  all;  while  a  small  library  well-selected  may, 
like  Aladdin's  lamp,  turn  the  abode  of  poverty  into  a 
princely  home." 

Through  reading,  the  child's  horizon  is  widened  at  a  very 
early  age.  He  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  great  world 
in  which  he  has  to  live.  As  an  educational  agency,  reading 
is  of  the  very  greatest  importance.  The  leading  idea  is  to 
fill  the  child's  mind  with  a  love  for  good,  true  literature, 
and  so  train  his  mind  that  he  can  discriminate  between  the 
good  and  the  bad,  that  he  will  naturally  reject  all  that  is 
worthless.  There  is  nothing  a  teacher  can  do  for  his  pupils 
to  more  advantage  than  to  teach  them  the  proper  use  of 
good  books. 

134 


THE   SCHOOL   LIBRARY  135 

In  selecting  school  libraries,  great  care  should  be  used 
in  the  choice  of  books.  There  is  much  of  the  so-called 
juvenile  literature  that  is  not  fit  to  put  into  the  hands  of  the 
child.  The  children  should  early  be  introduced  to  such 
authors  as  Hans  Andersen,  the  Grimm  brothers,  and 
Charles  Kingsley.  Later  on  they  will  enjoy  Longfellow, 
Whittier,  Irving,  Dickens,  and  others.  There  are  many 
writers  of  later  date  that  never  fail  to  interest  children. 
Kate  Douglas  Wiggin,  Alice  Hegan  Rice,  " Pansy,"  Olive 
Thome  Miller,  James  Otis,  C.  A.  Stephens,  and  Margaret 
Sidney  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  who  have  become 
favorites. 

It  is  not  enough  to  select  good  books  and  place  them 
within  reach  of  the  pupil.  The  books  should  become  a 
part  of  the  life  of  the  schoolroom.  They  should  be  used 
to  stimulate  and  direct  the  intellectual  growth  of  the  chil- 
dren. Mere  handing  of  books  to  the  pupils  by  the  teachers 
will  not  do.  It  deprives  the  children  of  the  knowledge 
of  the  use  of  books.  Besides,  the  teacher,  by  this  passive 
process,  cuts  herself  off  from  one  of  the  best  ways  to  under- 
stand the  child's  nature,  and  deprives  herself  of  a  vast 
amount  of  material  for  good  work. 

Books  have  three  main  uses;  to  amuse,  to  instruct,  and 
to  develop  mind  and  character.  The  teacher  should  be 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  every  book  in  the  library,  so 
that  she  may  know  in  what  kind  of  work  she  can  best  use 
each  one.  Books  that  are  intended  merely  to  amuse  are 
not  so  useful  in  the  school  as  in  the  home,  unless  they  are 
properly  handled  by  the  teacher.  Almost  any  work  of 
fiction  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  reading,  spelling,  and 
language  work.  Many  of  them  are  valuable  in  connection 


136       THE  TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

with  history,  geography,  and  general  knowledge  of  the 
world.  It  is  a  poor  story  that  cannot  be  used  to  instruct 
as  well  as  to  amuse,  and  a  story  that  has  no  ethical  value 
is  to  be  avoided  in  school  libraries. 

For  instance,  the  boy  reads  On  Fighting  Decks  in  1812,  by 
F.  H.  Costello.  To  be  entertained,  he  should  be  allowed 
to  enjoy  it  thoroughly;  but  the  teacher  can  make  it  serve 
to  strengthen  his  school  work  without  destroying  his 
pleasure.  Let  the  pupil  be  led  to  describe: 

(1)  The  wrecking  of  the  sailboat. 

(2)  The  character  of  the  coast  of  Maine. 

(3)  The  rescue  of  the  frigate  "  Constitution." 

(4)  Description  of  the  frigate. 

(5)  The  fight  of  the  "Guerriere,"  and  "Java." 

(6)  Experience  in  fighting  pirates. 

Now  let  the  teacher  lead  the  boy  from  the  fight  with  the 
pirates  to  the  object  of  the  pirates,  the  results,  the  cause 
of  the  battles,  and  so  on.  When  this  is  thoroughly  done 
the  boy  will  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  War  of  1812,  and 
will  not  realize  that  he  has  been  actually  studying  history. 

Beautiful  Joe,  by  Marshall  Saunders,  affords  enjoyment 
and  will  teach  pupils  to  treat  animals  kindly.  The  teacher 
can  obtain  a  fund  of  material  in  this  little  volume.  The  chil- 
dren may  be  allowed  to  form  a  "Band  of  Mercy";  devote 
a  part  of  a  Friday  afternoon  each  month  to  this  work.  Let 
them  tell  or  write  stories  of  their  own  experience,  encourage 
them. to  read  others,  and  in  every  way  develop  the  spirit  of 
kindness  to  animals. 

Books  of  history  and  travel  will  impart  a  general  in- 
formation besides  being  very  entertaining,  for,  to  the  child, 
truth  is  stranger  than  fiction.  In  these  books,  the  teacher 


THE    SCHOOL   LIBRARY  137 

will  find  a  whole  world  of  fact  and  fancy  to  lead  the  pupil 
through.  History  and  geography  may  be  made  more 
interesting  to  the  pupils  by  a  course  of  general  reading 
judiciously  directed  by  the  teacher. 

Poetry  is  chief  among  the  forms  of  literature  which  de- 
velop the  imagination  and  the  spiritual  nature.  The  child 
will  get  more  pleasure  and  understanding  from  it  if  he  first 
hears  it  read  well.  Narrative  poetry  is  the  form  best 
adapted  to  interest  children  in  this  kind  of  literature. 

(1)  Read  the  poem  to  the  children. 

(2)  Get  them  to  describe  what  they  see  with  the  mind's 

eye. 

(3)  Help  them  to  catch  the  feeling  and  spirit. 
Illustration.— " The  Life  of   a   Dewdrop,"   by   Emily 

Rowe.  Pupils  may  be  led  to  answer  the  following  ques- 
tions : 

(1)  Of  what  is  a  dewdrop  made? 

(2)  Where  does  the  dewdrop  come  from? 

(3)  Why  does  it  collect  upon  the  grass  and  flowers? 

(4)  How  did  the  dewdrop  change? 

If  the  teacher  is  familiar  with  the  contents  of  the  school 
library,  however  small  it  may  be,  she  can  bring  up  rein- 
forcements in  the  way  of  pictures,  sketches,  and  the  like, 
that  will  enrich  the  whole  course  of  the  pupil's  school  life, 
and  create  a  love  for  the  beautiful  and  the  true,  which  will 
materially  affect  his  life  afterwards. 

In  a  great  many  of  our  country  and  village  schools  there 
are  no  libraries.  It  is  hi  the  hands  of  the  teachers  to 
remedy  this  fault.  In  some  of  our  states  the  school  boards 
are  allowed  a  certain  sum  yearly  for  library  purposes.  In 
districts  where  the  directors  have  not  taken  advantage  of 


138       THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

this  law,  the  teacher  should  remind  them  of  their  duty. 
There  are  many  ways  in  which  the  teacher  and  pupils  can 
cooperate  to  earn  a  library.  The  following  suggestions 
may  be  helpful  to  those  who  wish  to  start  a  library  or  to 
increase  the  one  they  have: 

(1)  First,   every  school  should  subscribe  for  as  many 
really  good  papers  and  magazines  as  possible.     The  teacher 
will  find  endless  ways  to  make  these  useful.     And  the  re- 
sourceful teacher  will  not  be  troubled  about  the  money  to 
pay  for  the  subscriptions.     A  freewill  offering  of  five  cents 
per  month,  possibly  less,  from  each  family  would  do  it. 
The  children  will  delight  in  earning  money  for  such  a 
purpose.     And  the  papers  themselves   would  be  a  fine 
foundation  for  a  library.    We  shall  see  later  how  this  may 
be  managed. 

(2)  Have  entertainments;  restore  the  old-time  exhibi- 
tions.    Charge  a  suitable  admission,  being  sure  to  have  it 
understood  that  the  proceeds  are  for  a  library. 

(3)  Pupils  may  be  encouraged  to  do  work  for  the  school 
that  the  Board  usually  hires  done,  such  as  cleaning  the 
schoolhouse,  mowing   the  lawn,  sawing  wood,  and  so  on. 
In  one  school,  the  teacher  and  the  boys  sawed  the  year's 
wood  and  used  the  money  to  purchase  school  songbooks. 

(4)  In  the  summer  time,  ice  cream  socials,  strawberry 
festivals,  and  the  like,  are  quite  sure  to  be  well  patronized. 
In  the  winter,  chicken  pie  socials  and  oyster  suppers  will 
prove  equally  attractive. 

(5)  When  interest  in  the  school  library  has  been  suffi- 
ciently aroused,  allow  the  pupils  to  solicit  subscriptions. 
Encourage  them  at  all  times  to  be  on  the  lookout  for 
chances  to  increase  the  library  fund. 


THE    SCHOOL   LIBRARY  139 

(6)  Write  to  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  a  list  of  their 
publications.     Also  get  as  many  as  possible  of  the  Farm 
Bulletins;   there  is  scarcely  a  one  of  these  that  cannot 
be  made  vitally  interesting  to  the  country  pupils.     When 
the  farm  boys  and  girls  realize  the  interest  and  importance 
of  the  country,  life  will  grow  incomparably  broader  and 
richer  and  the  city  will  have  fewer  attractions. 

(7)  Send    some    postal    cards    to    the    manufacturing 
companies.     They  publish  a  wealth  of  industrial  informa- 
tion, and  are  glad  indeed  to  send  their  literature  into  such 
a  broad  advertising  avenue.     Here  is  a  list  of  subjects  for 
composition,  suggested  from  a  page  of  advertisements: 

A  Cup  of  Chocolate.  A  Spool  of  Silk. 

American  Porcelain.  Making  Pocket  Knives. 

(8)  Canvass  the  neighborhood  for  papers  and  magazines. 
Procure  a  liberal  supply  of  heavy  manila  paper,  needles, 
coarse  thread,  scissors,  pen  and  ink,  a  bottle  of  library 
paste,  pasteboards,  some  large  envelopes  8>£  by  n,  and  a 
quantity  of  pasteboard  boxes.     The  latter  should  be  uni- 
form in  size  and  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  big 
envelopes.     Get  some  handy  boy  to  make  a  frame  for  the 
boxes.     A    convenient    frame    contains    thirty-six    boxes, 
arranged  in  tiers  of  six. 

Now  let  the  teacher  go  through  the  papers  and  magazines 
with  a  blue  pencil,  marking  such  stories,  articles,  and 
items  as  she  thinks  may  be  helpful  and  interesting.  Pupils 
may  clip  and  assort  these.  In  the  case  of  continued 
stories  and  long  articles,  simply  tear  out  the  pages,  and 
arrange  in  consecutive  order.  For  example,  suppose  one 
of  these  stories  is  "Penrod  and  the  Pageant,"  from  an  old 
magazine.  Assemble  the  pages,  and  place  them  inside  a 


140   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

fold  of  manila  paper,  cut  just  a  trifle  larger.  Sew  along 
the  left  margin,  being  careful  to  fasten  the  ends  securely. 
Now  let  some  good  penman  write  the  title  and  the  author's 
name  on  the  cover  page: 

PENROD  AND  THE  PAGEANT 

by 
BOOTH  TARKINGTON 

and  the  first  "book"  is  ready  for  the  library. 

After  the  "books"  are  bound  and  shelved,  attention  may 
be  given  to  the  other  clipped  matter.  Label  the  boxes 
"United  States,"  "Foreign  Countries,"  "Industries," 
"The  Months  and  Special  Days,"  "Trees,"  "Animals," 
"Flowers,"  "Birds,"  "Authors,"  "Literature,"  and  the 
like.  For  example,  imagine  the  box  marked  "Foreign 
Countries"  open  before  you:  Take  a  bundle  of  envelopes, 
labeling  them  "England,"  "China,"  "Japan,"  and  so  on. 
Page  clippings  and  others  of  large  size  may  be  indexed  on 
the  proper  envelope,  folded,  and  slipped  inside.  Here  are 
some  subjects  chosen  at  random  from  the  envelope  de- 
voted to  "Japan"  in  my  own  book  of  "Foreign  Countries" : 
Animals  of  Japan,  Japanese  Life  and  Legends,  The  Japa- 
nese School  Boy,  A  Japanese  Home,  Illustrations.  The 
illustrations  are  in  a  smaller  envelope,  and  comprise  a 
veritable  mine. 

Catalogues,  government  bulletins,  and  pamphlets  may  be 
filed  entire,  or  shorn  to  school  use,  if  space  is  limited.  Short 
articles  and  items  should  be  pasted  on  cardboard  before 
filing.  In  this  way  a  valuable  reference  library  may  be 
accumulated,  a  little  at  a  time.  Its  resources  and  possi- 
bilities are  unlimited.  Composition  writing  could  never 


THE    SCHOOL   LIBRARY  141 

be  a  bugbear  in  a  schoolroom  thus  richly  endowed,  and 
think  of  the  " helps"  in  literature,  history,  and  geography, 
not  to  mention  the  bond  of  interest  established  between 
school  and  home! 

Let  the  interest  in  the  library  once  be  started,  and  it  is 
surprising  how  many  ways  and  means  pupils  and  patrons 
will  suggest  to  enlarge  it.  In  a  certain  school,  the  library 
has  grown  to  more  than  one  hundred  volumes,  through  the 
untiring  efforts  of  pupils,  patrons,  and  teacher.  They  are 
greatly  interested  in  the  work  and  are  now  making  prepara- 
tions for  another  entertainment.  One  old  lady  said  she 
had  read  every  book  in  the  library,  and  she  hoped  they 
would  get  some  more  soon. 

The  library  affords  an  excellent  avenue  for  reaching  the 
parents.  They  will  naturally  wish  to  read  the  books  they 
hear  their  children  discussing  at  home,  and  thus  pupils, 
parents,  and  teachers  are  drawn  closer  together  by  a  com- 
mon interest.  The  teacher  we  have  mentioned  as  instru- 
mental in  securing  songbooks  for  his  school  read  The 
Hoosier  Schoolmaster  to  his  pupils  by  way  of  sowing  library 
seed.  Before  he  was  half  through  the  book,  the  pupils 
began  to  bring  in  requests  to  borrow  it.  The  book  then 
made  the  rounds  of  the  neighborhood,  followed  closely  by 
others,  until  a  library  in  District  Number  10  was  the  thing 
most  earnestly  desired. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
NATURE  STUDY 

Nature  study  in  the  schools  is  a  vital  factor  in  the  prime 
motive  in  education:  character  building.  It  has  for  its 
aim: 

1.  To  develop  the  child's  higher  nature. 

2.  To  increase  his  happiness. 

3.  To  broaden  his  horizon  by  making  him  better  ac- 

quainted with  his  physical  environment. 

4.  To  prepare   him   to   appreciate   the  literature   that 

nature  has  inspired. 

5.  To  develop  a  sympathetic  interest  in  living  things. 

6.  To  develop  his  intellectual  powers. 

7.  To   lead   him    to   love   nature    and   the   Author   of 

nature. 

Many  teachers,  fully  realizing  the  importance  of  nature 
study,  still  merely  skirt  the  subject.  Why?  They  have 
had  no  special  training  and  fear  to  take  hold  of  the  work. 
Let  those  who  hesitate  read  Phoebe  Gary's  delightfully 
inspiring  poem  "The  Book  of  Nature,"  and  turn  to  the 
abundance  of  choice  material  which  the  Creator  has  pro- 
vided in  every  locality.  For,  after  all,  personal  observa- 
tion is  the  best  teacher,  and  there  are  the  pages  of  Bur- 
roughs, Gibson,  Bryant,  Olive  Thome  Miller,  and  scores 
of  other  delightful  nature  lovers  to  turn  for  guidance,  when 
inspiration  and  enthusiasm  flag.  The  teacher  with  a  real 
love  for  nature  in  her  heart  need  not  fear  failure.  She  has 

142 


NATURE    STUDY  143 

but  to  arouse  a  genuine,  sympathetic  interest  in  the  chil- 
dren and  start  them  upon  little  investigating  tours  to 
discover  many  of  nature's  secrets.  Undoubtedly  the 
teacher  will  be  most  successful  with  subjects  which  appeal 
most  forcibly  to  her  personally,  but  she  must  keep  time- 
liness in  mind,  remembering  that  'all  things  by  season 
seasoned  are.' 

Material  in  the  first  three  or  four  grades  should  be  chosen 
with  special  reference  to  the  culture  of  the  child's  higher 
life.  Perhaps  nothing  in  nature  has  power  to  delight 
children  and  concentrate  their  thought  so  quickly  as  the 
habits  and  activities  of  animals.  Flowers  and  plants, 
however,  have  the  advantage  over  animals  in  the  fact  that 
all  stages  of  development  can  be  studied  at  the  same  time, 
and  they  are,  as  a  rule,  more  easily  obtained  and  more  easily 
cared  for.  The  awakening  seeds  and  unfolding  blossoms 
have  special  attractions  for  the  children,  and  they  are 
also  beautifully  adapted  to  cultivate  a  sympathetic  interest 
in  nature.  In  addition  to  the  study  of  plants  and  animals, 
such  forces  as  water,  air,  and  sunlight  should  receive  special 
attention. 

Pictures  and  related  literature  are  invaluable  in  supple- 
menting nature  study.  The  teacher  who  would  lead  her 
pupils  to  see,  to  enjoy,  and  to  love  nature,  must  dwell  with 
the  poet  and  the  artist  as  well  as  with  the  scientist;  she 
must  learn  to  appreciate  something  of  the  beauties  they 
saw  on  every  hand  and  to  enter  into  the  joy  of  their 
portrayal. 

Try  appealing  to  the  artistic  and  poetic  side  of  the  child's 
nature  by  reading  bits  of  prose  and  verse  describing  scenes 
in  nature.  Question  pupils  to  make  sure  that  they  have  a 


144       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

clear  mental  picture  of  the  scene  portrayed.     The  following 
verses  will  illustrate: 

In  the  oldest  woods  I  know  a  brooklet, 
That  bubbles  over  stones  and  roots, 
And  ripples  out  of  hollow  places, 
Like  music  out  of  flutes. 

There  creeps  the  pungent  breath  of  cedars, 
Rich  coolness  wraps  the  air  about, 
Whilst  through  clear  pools  electric  flashes 
Betray  the  watchful  trout. 

I  know  where  wild  things  lurk  and  linger 
In  groves  as  gray  and  grand  as  time; 
I  know  where  God  has  written  poems 
Too  strong  for  words  or  rime.1 

Other  nature  poems  that  appeal  to  children  are: 

"The  Wild  Geese"  and  "The  Sandpiper,"  by  Celia  Thaxter. 

"The  Throstle"  and  "The  Brook,"  by  Tennyson. 

"St.  Martin's  Summer"  and  "The  Last  Walk  in  Autumn," 

by  Whittier. 
"The  First  Bluebird"  and  "When  the  Green  Gits  Back  in 

the  Trees,"  by  Riley. 

"March"  and  "The  Daffodils,"  by  Wordsworth. 
"  Easter  Dawn,"  by  Lucy  Larcom. 

Encourage  the  children  to  commit  choice  verses  to  mem- 
ory and  to  render  them  with  expression.  Read  them  selec- 
tions from  Burroughs's  Wake  Robin.  Rufus  Choate  attributed 
much  of  his  power  as  an  orator  to  the  habit  formed  when  a 
boy,  of  reciting  the  most  beautiful  passages  from  everything 
he  read. 

1Maurice  Thompson. 


NATURE  STUDY  145 

SPRING  NATURE  STUDY 

The  teacher  who  cannot  find  in  the  unfolding  buds  of 
spring,  the  fresh-awakened  flowers,  and  the  joyous  bird 
songs,  material  for  a  myriad  of  nature  lessons  has  indeed 
missed  her  calling.  Begin  with  the  most  obvious  thing: 
the  signs  of  spring.  Get  expressions  from  the  children 
as  to  why  they  know  it  is  spring. 

The  bluebird  chants  from  the  elm's  long  branches, 

A  hymn  to  welcome  the  budding  year. 
The  south  wind  wanders  from  field  to  forest, 

And  softly  whispers,  "The  Spring  is  here."  1 

Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  in  poems  of  spring. 
Read  and  discuss  such  poems  as: 

"The  Voice  of  Spring,"  by  Mrs.  Hemans. 
"Between  Winter  and  Spring,"  by  Lucy  Larcom. 
"The  Voice  of  the  Grass,"  by  Sarah  Roberts. 
Selections  from  Signs  and  Seasons,  by  Burroughs. 
"Spring,"  by  Celia  Thaxter. 
"Rollicking  Robin,"  by  Kate  Upson  Clark. 
"Buttercups  and  Daisies,"  by  Mary  Howitt. 
"The  Bluebird,"  by  Eben  Rexford. 

The  last  four  selections  should  be  memorized. 

THE  WIND 
Study  the  parts  in  nature  played  by  the  wind  and  the  rain. 

1.  At  what  time  of  the  year  does  the  wind  blow  most? 

2.  Of  what  use  is  the  wind? 

(a)  It  melts  the  snow  and  dries  up  the  mud. 

(b)  It  blows  up  the  rain  clouds. 

(c)  Later,  it  scatters  the  pollen. 

1WilKam  Cullen  Bryant. 


146   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

"The  Wind,"  by  Stevenson,  "Ulysses  and  the  Bag  of 
Winds"  and  "The  Four  Winds,"  by  Andersen,  are  interest- 
ing selections  to  accompany  the  study  of  the  wind. 

THE   RAIN 

1.  When  do  we  have  the  most  rain? 

2.  Of  what  use  is  it?     (To  help  melt  the  snow,  to  bathe 
and  purify  the  earth,  to  warm  the  ground,  to  soak  into  the 
waiting  seeds,  and  to  help  the  plants  grow.) 

3.  Where  does  the  rain  come  from? 
There  are  many  good  "rain"  poems: 

"Who  Likes  the  Rain?"  by  Clara  Bates. 
"Rain  Songs,"  by  Dunbar. 
"The  Rainy  Day,"  by  Longfellow. 
"The  Rain  Song  of  the  Robin,"  by  Kate  Upson  Clark. 
"The  Rainbow,"  by  Frank  Dempster  Sherman. 
"The  Rainbow,"  from  "The  Song  of  Hiawatha,"  by  Long- 
fellow. 

FLOWERS 

1.  Have  the  pupils  name  the  first  spring  wild  flowers. 
(The    earliest    are    hepatica,    bloodroot,    Dutchman's 

breeches,  spring  beauty,  anemone  or  windflower,  trillium 
or  wake-robin,  and  violet,  in  the  order  named.  If  possible, 
teach  pupils  to  know  each  of  these  flowers.) 

2.  Bring  in  poems  about  flowers. 

3.  Make  lists  of  well-known  spring  flowers. 

4.  Study  various  flower  shapes.     Develop  the   terms: 
corolla,  petals,  calyx,  stamen,  pistil,  pollen. 

5.  Of  what  use  is  the  pollen?     Discuss  the  different  ways 
in  which  it  is  scattered. 

6.  Why  do  so  many  flowers  have  bright-colored  petals? 

7.  Why  do  flowers  have  perfume? 


NATURE    STUDY  147 

Tell  the  legend  of  the  narcissus,  the  hyacinth,  the  iris. 
Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  in  flower  legends  in  poem  and  story. 
Grow  plants  and  bulbs  for  observation. 

Memorize  "The  Windflower,"  by  Lucy  Larcom. 

Readings: 

"The  Star  That  Became  a  Lily"  and  "The  Pea  Blossom,"  by 

Andersen. 

"To  the  Dandelion,"  by  Lowell. 
"Jack-in-the-pulpit,"  by  Clara  Smith. 
References: 

Little  Flower  Folks,  by  Mara  L.  Pratt. 

Flowers  and  Their  Friends,  by  M.  W.  Morley. 

How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers,  by  Mrs.  W.  S.  Dana. 

THE    TREES 

A  series  of  preparatory  talks  should  pave  the  way  for  field 
work  with  the  trees.  The  following  topics  are  suggestive: 

1.  What  the  tree  is. 

2.  The  work  of  the  leaves. 

3.  How  trees  grow. 

(a)  What  happens  to  the  tree  if  the  heartwood  is 
injured? 

(b)  What  if  the  sapwood  is  injured? 

(c)  Why  do  trees  die? 

The  three  important  parts  of  the  tree,  roots,  trunk  or 
stem,  and  leaves  should  be  taught.  Altogether  a  tree  is 
made  up  of  earth  elements,  water,  and  buoyant,  invisible 
gases.  If  we  burn  a  stick  of  wood  in  the  open  air,  these 
are  released.  The  gases  pass  off,  the  water  goes  up  in 
invisible  steam,  and  all  that  is  left  are  the  ashes.  The 
ashes  never  comprise  more  than  one  tenth  the  weight  of  the 
original  timber. 


148       THE   TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

The  leaves  are  the  magicians  who  constructed  a  strong 
and  sturdy  tree  of  these  materials.  Each  leaf  besides 
being  a  breathing  organ  is  a  tiny  factory  in  itself,  devoted 
principally  to  the  manufacture  of  starch.  It  obtains 
raw  materials  from  the  air,  and  from  the  moisture  which 
the  roots  obtain  from  the  soil.  The  sun  furnishes  power. 
The  machinery  is  the  soft  green  leaf  pulp,  called  chlo- 
rophyll. 

The  stem  has  regular  avenues  leading  from  the  roots  to 
the  leaves  and  back  again.  Raw  material  travels  in  some, 
and  life-giving  sap  in  others.  The  upward  routes  are  by 
way  of  the  youngest  fibers  of  the  sap  wood.  Return  trips 
are  made  through  the  inner  bark  or  cambium. 

This  cambium  is  made  up  of  millions  of  cells,  which  grow 
and  divide  into  others  as  long  as  the  food  supply  lasts. 
Thus  each  cell  may  increase  to  two,  four,  eight,  sixteen, 
and  so  on.  In  this  way  a  new  layer  of  woody  tissue  and 
one  of  bark  is  built  up  each  year  by  the  cambium ,  adding  to 
the  girth  of  the  tree.  But  the  cambium  never  adds  to  its 
own  width.  It  remains  always  a  thin  layer  of  dividing 
cells,  constantly  adding  to  the  bark  on  one  side  and  to  the 
wood  on  the  other. 

The  tree  grows  taller  by  means  of  the  green  shoots  on  the 
terminal  branch.  Cell  division  is  the  most  rapid  in  these 
green  shoots.  Because  of  the  chlorophyll  in  them  they  can 
make  their  own  food,  independently  of  the  leaves.  And 
the  cambium  cells  in  them  have  the  power  to  lengthen  as 
well  as  to  thicken  the  stem.  This  power  is  lacking  in  the 
cambium  cells  of  the  trunk  and  yearling  branches.  So  the 
shoots  grow  by  leaps  and  bounds. 

4.  The  Sleep  of  the  Trees. 


NATURE   STUDY  149 

Among  Green  Trees,  by  J.  E.  Rogers;  A  Year  among  the 
Trees  by  W.  Flagg;  and  Familiar  Trees,  by  F.  S.  Mathews, 
are  useful  reference  books. 

Now  the  pupil  is  ready  for  intelligent  study  with  the 
trees  themselves.  Note  their  appearance  in  early  spring. 

1.  The  sap. 

(a)  Its  use  to  the  tree. 

(b)  Its  use  to  man:  maple  sugar,  turpentine  and 
pitch,  gums,  and  so  on. 

2.  The  swelling  buds. 

(a)  Their  arrangement  on  the  twigs. 

(b)  The  three  kinds— flower, leaf,  and  mixed  buds. 

How  wonderfully  Nature  does  up  her  packages!  Each 
bud  is  wrapped  in  layers  of  scales,  securely  gummed  together, 
and  the  whole  given  a  coat  of  varnish,  that  it  may  be  safe 
from  the  elements.  As  a  further  precaution  some  buds  are 
carefully  lined  with  fur,  others  with  cotton  or  with  tiny 
plant  hairs.  Sometimes  in  place  of  scales  there  is  a  nice 
little  brown  cap  tightly  fitted  over  the  bud.  Sycamore 
buds  have  such  caps,  neatly  covered  on  the  outside  with  fine 
hair.  Some  of  the  little  caps  are  quite  pointed.  They  con- 
tain leaf  buds.  The  others  have  both  leaves  and  flowers,  and 
are  plump  and  rounded.  The  willows,  too,  wear  caps,  or 
leathery  hoods,  all  made  in  one  piece  and  lined  with  silvery 
fur.  The  buds  of  the  wild  cherry  are  slender  and  pointed, 
and  each  sits  upon  a  little  shelf.  Butternut  buds  also  occupy 
a  shelf,  and  over  them  is  a  hairy  ridge,  much  resembling  a 
pair  of  eyebrows.  They  are  perhaps  the  oddest  of  all  buds. 
Their  pungent  odor  and  general  clamminess  would  reveal 
their  identity  in  the  dark.  Black  walnut  buds  are  clothed 
in  rich  gray  velvet.  Those  of  the  beech  taper  to  delicate 
points,  and  are  wrapped  in  scales  thin  as  tissue  paper,  and 
covered  with  soft,  silken  hair.1 

1  McFee,  Tree  Truths  and  Fables. 


150   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

3.  The  blossoms  or  fruit  buds. 

(a)  Why  do  most  trees  put  forth  blossoms  first? 

(b)  Examine  the  blossoms  of  the  pussy  willow, 
the  maple,  the  sycamore,  the  horse-chestnut,  and 
the  apple  tree. 

4.  Watch   the   unfolding   of   various   leaf  buds.     Note 
how  cleverly  each  was  creased  and  folded  in  its  tiny 
parcel. 

5.  Learn  to  know  the  common  trees. 

Poems:  ''Apple  Seed  John,"  by  Lydia  Maria  Child. 

"The  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree"  and  "  A  Forest  Hymn,"  by 

Bryant. 

"Forest  Blessings,"  by  Margaret  Sangster. 
"The  Vine  and  the  Oak,"  by  Emerson. 
"The  Birch  Tree,"  "The  Oak,"  "The  Maple,"  by  Lowell. 
"The  Haunted  Tree,"  by  Wordsworth. 

THE   BIRDS 

Now  the  days  are  full  of  music, 

All  the  birds  are  back  again; 
In  the  tree  tops,  in  the  meadows, 

In  the  woodlands,  on  the  plain. 
See  them  darting  through  the  sunshine, 

Hear  them  singing  loud  and  clear; 
How  they  love  the  busy  springtime, 

Sweetest  time  of  all  the  year! 

1.  What  birds  come  first?     Keep  a  chart  and  note  the 
date  of  first  arrivals. 

2.  Have  the  pupils  make  lists  of  the  birds  they  know. 

3.  Read  selections  from  "The  Birds  of  Killingworth," 
by  Longfellow.     Discuss  the  value  of  birds. 

4.  What  birds  are  helpful  to  the  farmer? 


NATURE    STUDY  151 

5.  What    bird    is    especially    helpful    to    the    cotton 
planter?1 

6.  What  birds  are  valuable  in  the  forest? 

7.  Have  pupils  make  lists  of  birds  that  hop,  birds  that 
walk,  birds  that  sing  on  the  wing,  birds  that  tell  their  names, 
birds  that  sing  at  night,  birds  that  hunt,  birds  that  are 
hunted. 

8.  Where  do  birds  sleep  at  night? 

9.  How  and  where  do  birds  build  their  nests? 

(a)  Study  specimens  of  different  nests.     But  do 
not  tear  them  down  for  the  purpose. 

(b)  Do  birds  build  new  nests  each  year? 

(c)  Do  all  birds  build  nests?    What  bird  lays  its 
egg  in  the  nests  of  other  birds? 

10.  Name  some  bird  enemies.     (It  is  estimated  that 
man  alone  kills  five  million  birds  annually). 

11.  Talk   about   migration.     Some   of   the   great    bird 
family  are  corning  and  going  all  the  time. 

(a)  How  are  the  birds  guided?    Why  do  they  go? 

(b)  Do  they  fly  day  and  night  on  the  journey? 

(c)  Do  they  fly  very  high? 

(d)  Do  they  ever  lose  their  way? 

Watch  for  the  flocks  of  ducks  and  geese.  Explain  that 
the  leader  flies  ahead  at  the  point  where  the  two  lines  of 
birds  meet.  When  he  becomes  too  tired  to  guide  the 
flock,  he  falls  back,  and  a  second  takes  his  place,  without 
breaking  the  perfect  order  of  the  rank.  Watch  for  "pass- 
ing callers."  Many  delightful  bird  friends  may  be  made 
in  this  way. 

1  Because  of  the  great  destruction  of  the  quail,  the  cotton  boll  weevil  is 
yearly  working  more  and  more  damage. 


152   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Poems: 

"The  Birds'  Orchestra,"  "The  Robin,"  " Yellowbird,"  by 

Celia  Thaxter. 

"The  O'Lincoln  Family,"  by  Wilson  Flagg. 
"Robert  of  Lincoln,"  "The  Return  of  the  Birds,"  by 

Bryant. 

"To  the  Skylark,"  by  Shelley. 
"Sir  Robin,"  by  Lucy  Larcom. 
"The  Pewee,"  by  John  T.  Trowbridge. 
"Warbling  of  the  Blackbirds,"  by  Jean  Ingelow. 
(Ask  the  pupils  to  add  to  the  list.) 
Songs: 

"When  Robin  Comes  to  Town." 
"The  Birdies'  Ball." 
"Robin  Redbreast." 
" Don't  Kill  the  Birds." 
Readings: 

Fresh  Fields,  by  John  Burroughs. 

Citizen  Bird,  by  Mabel  Osgood  Wright. 
References: 

Bird  Neighbors,  by  Neltje  Blanchan. 

Our  Birds  and  Their  Nestlings,  by  Margaret  C.  Walker. 

Birds  Through  the  Year,  by  A.  F.  Gilmore. 

GERMINATION 

Every  clod  feels  a  stir  of  might, 

An  instinct  within  it  that  reaches  and  towers, 
And  groping  blindly  above  it  for  light. 

Climbs  to  a  soul  in  grass  and  flowers.1 - 

i.  Read  and  discuss  with  the  children:  "A  Laughing 
Chorus,"  by  Emerson;  "Waiting  to  Grow,"  by  French;  and 
"The  Little  Brown  Seed  in  the  Furrow,"  by  Benham. 
Pupils  should  commit  these  poems  to  memory. 

1  James  Russell  Lowell;  "Vision  of  Sir  Launfal." 


NATURE    STUDY  153 

2.  Select  a  few  representative  seeds,  such  as  pea,  bean, 
corn,  and  squash,  for  study.     Plant  them  in  boxes  of  sand 
and  watch  their  growth.     Help  pupils  to  discover  that 
growing  seeds  need  air,  moisture,  and  warmth.     Plant  a 
few  seeds  in  a  moist  sponge  for  easy  observation.     Keep 
the  sponge  evenly  moist,  and  hang  in  a  dark  place  until 
germination  is  fairly  started. 

3.  Compare  bean,  pea,  and  corn  seedlings.     Why  is  the 
stem  of  the  bean  bent  into  a  loop  as  it  comes  up  to  the  light? 

4.  Develop    the    terms    coat,    cotyledon,    caulicle,    and 
plumule,  and  have  the  children  see  what  each  does  for  the 
plant. 

5.  How  does  the  plumule  of  the  bean  differ  from  that  of 
the  corn?     Which  of  these  seedlings  has  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  root  hairs? 

6.  Discuss  the  use  of  root,  stem,  and  leaves. 
Read  "A  Poppy  Seed,"  by  Celia  Thaxter. 

FALL  NATURE  STUDY 

What  does  it  mean  when  the  crickets  chirp, 
And  away  to  the  southland  the  wild  geese  steer; 
When  apples  are  falling  and  nuts  are  brown? 
These  are  the  signs  that  autumn  is  here. 

Question  the  children  for  further  signs  of  autumn.  Have 
them  bring  in  poems  regarding  Jack  Frost.  Talk  about  the 
preparations  on  every  hand  that  Nature  is  making  for  win- 
ter. How  does  the  wind  sound  in  the  fall?  Read  and  dis- 
cuss "The  Gladness  of  Nature,"  by  Bryant. 

Poems: 

"Lost:   The  Summer,"  by  R.  M.  Alden. 

"Fall  Fashions,"  by  Edith  M.  Thomas. 


154       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

"September,"  and  "October's   Bright   Blue   Weather,"   by 

Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 
"October,"  by  Wordsworth. 
"Merry  Autumn,"  by  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar. 
"The  Night  Wind,"  by  Eugene  Field. 

THE   FLOWERS 

1.  What  flowers  bloom  along  the  roadsides  at  this  season? 

2.  What  flowers  are  blossoming  in  the  garden? 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  bulbs.     Learn  how  to  store  them 
for  the  winter.     What  bulbs  should  be  bedded  at  this 
season?     Plant  hyacinth,  tulip,  and  narcissus  bulbs  in  pots 
for  forcing.     They  make  lovely  Christmas  gifts. 

4.  Tell  the  legend  of  the  chrysanthemum;   the  legend  of 
the  goldenrod  and  aster;  the  legend  of  the  closed  gentian. 

Poems: 

"  Goldenrod,"  in  Nature  in  Verse,  by  Mary  Lovejoy. 
"Death  of  the  Flowers,"  and  "To  the  Fringed  Gentian," 
by  Bryant. 

THE   TREES 

The  splendor  of  the  trees  in  autumn  is  ever  a  source  of 
wonder  and  delight  to  the  children.  Encourage  them  to 
collect  and  press  leaves  for  the  decoration  of  the  school- 
room. Group  trees  dressed  in  red  and  yellow,  crimson, 
purple  and  green.  Notice  which  trees  change  their  leaves 
first.  Explain  why  the  trees  are  so  gayly  dressed.  Once 
we  thought  the  rich  colors  due  to  Jack  Frost,  now  we  know 
it  is  to  the  decaying  mineral  matter  in  the  leaves.  All 
summer  long  the  leaves  have  busily  sorted  certain  minerals 
from  the  air  and  water;  the  tree  could  not  use  them  so  the 
leaves  obligingly  stored  them  away  in  their  own  cells. 


NATURE    STUDY  155 

How  they  are  repaid  for  their  labor  in  their  beautiful  dresses 
of  every  sheen  and  hue! 

Read  and  discuss,  "How  the  Leaves  Came  Down," 
by  Susan  Coolidge.  Explain  the  real  reason  for  the  falling 
leaves:  The  sap  of  the  tree  absorbs  the  living  matter  and 
the  food  cells  of  the  leaves  as  the  cold  weather  draws  near, 
so  that  the  tree  may  store  up  enough  nourishment  on  which 
to  live  through  the  winter,  and  to  feed  her  tiny  leaf  buds 
until  they  get  old  enough  to  look  after  themselves.  Have 
the  children  examine  leaves  that  are  ready  to  fall,  and  lead 
them  to  discover  the  layer,  of  tissue  which  has  been  built 
across  the  end  of  the  petiole;  this  loosens  the  leaf  stalk  and 
it  only  waits  for  a  gale  of  wind  to  carry  it  away. 

Remember  next  year's  buds  are  formed  before  the  old 
leaves  fall.  Autumn  is  really  the  beginning  of  the  year  as 
far  as  the  tree's  life  is  concerned.  The  children  will  de- 
light in  looking  for  the  tiny  babies.  A  willow  branch  will 
best  serve  for  the  first  lesson,  for  its  buds  are  the  easiest 
to  see.  The  bud  is  right  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  stalk, 
enclosed  in  a  single  wrapping.  It  is  made  of  two  tiny 
leaves  joined  by  their  margins.  Strip  off  the  wrapper 
carefully  with  a  needle  and  the  bud  is  laid  bare.  But  you 
cannot  see  how  perfect  it  really  is  without  a  magnifying 
glass.  There  are  five  or  six  of  next  year's  leaves,  complete 
in  every  way,  even  to  the  veins  and  the  delicate  toothing 
of  the  edge.  Some  buds  are  very  small  and  hard  to  find. 
If  you  were  to  pull  off  an  old  sumac  leaf  you  would  likely 
fail  to  see  the  bud.  But  wipe  off  the  tiny  drop  of  milk 
which  fills  the  wound  and  you  will  find  a  small,  pale  hump. 
With  a  magnifying  glass  and  a  needle  you  can  pick  out 
the  tiny  cluster  of  next  year's  leaves.  Perhaps  the  most 


156   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

interesting  bud  chamber  of  all  is  that  of  the  honey  locust. 
It  is  formed  at  the  base  of  the  old  leaf  stalk,  and  is  a  dear 
little  room,  shaped  like  a  horse's  hoof,  all  lined  with  a  wall 
of  white  fur,  and  cuddling  three  or  four  baby  leaf  buds. 
The  leaf  buds  of  the  sycamore  are  hidden  in  a  chamber 
under  the  stem  of  the  old  leaf. 

Pupils  will  be  interested  in  studying  the  witch-hazel 
which,  unlike  other  trees,  blossoms  in  the  fall. 

Poems: 

"Autumn  Woods,"  by  Bryant. 
"  Under  the  October  Maples,"  by  Lowell. 
"Before  the  Leaves  Fall,"  by  Margaret  Sangster. 
"How  the  Leaves  Came  Down,"  by  Susan  Coolidge. 
"The  Maple  and  the  Pine,"  "October's  Party,"  and  "Autumn 
Leaves,"  by  George  Cooper. 

SEEDTIME 

All  summer  long  the  plants  and  trees  have  been  preparing 
for  this  the  most  important  time  of  all  the  year.  They  have 
absorbed  the  sunshine  and  the  rain,  the  light  and  the  air, 
and  the  food  which  the  hundreds  of  tiny  rootlets  have 
gathered  from  the  soil  in  order  to  grow  and  perfect  their 
seeds.  And  they  have  accomplished  a  noble  work;  for 
truly  a  seed  is  a  most  wonderful  thing!  Take,  for  example, 
the  poppy  seed.  How  very  small  it  is!  And  yet  a  won- 
drous glory  is  folded  inside. 

Robes,  my  dear,  that  are  fit  for  kings; 
Scarlet  splendor  that  dazzles  the  eyes; 
Buds,  flowers,  leaves,  stalks, —  so  many  things! l 

Many  plants  furnish  seeds  so  rich  in  nourishment  that 
they  are  good  for  food.     (Ask  the  children  to  make  a  list 
1  Celia  Thaxter. 


NATURE    STUDY  157 

of  these.)  It  is  not  necessary  for  nature  to  take  care  in 
fashioning  these  seeds  so  that  they  may  be  easily  distribu- 
ted. Men  will  look  after  this  business.  This  is  also 
true  of  many  of  the  seeds  in  the  flower  garden.  We 
gladly  gather  them  and  tie  them  up  in  neatly-labeled 
packages  ready  for  planting  when  spring  comes.  It  is 
different  with  the  wild  flowers  and  weeds.  If  their  species 
are  renewed,  it  must  be  by  their  own  efforts.  Call  atten- 
tion to  the  dandelion  and  the  thistle.  Pull  one  of  the  airy 
silken  balls  to  pieces  and  note  the  tiny  seed  at  the  end  of 
each  plume.  How  swiftly  it  sails  with  the  wind!  Lead 
the  children  to  note  other  devices  for  seed  distribution; 
have  them  group  the  plants  according  to  the  agent  used. 
Thus: 

Sails  — 'dandelion,  milkweed,  cat- tail,  thistle. 

Hooks  —  burdocks,  sticktights. 

Wings  —  maple,  linden. 

Springs  —  touch-me-not,  witch-hazel. 

Often  Mother  Nature  devises  very  cunning  treasure 
boxes  for  the  safe-keeping  of  her  precious  seeds.  These 
boxes  are  not  like  any  that  we  use.  There  are  many 
different  kinds.  Such  odd  shapes  and  sizes  and  so  won- 
drously  colored!  The  children  will  enjoy  making  a  collec- 
tion of  these.  Make  a  list  of  plants  that  protect  their 
seeds  in  burr,  shell,  and  pod  treasure  boxes.  Many  seeds 
are  concealed  within  treasure  boxes  that  are  themselves 
used  for  food,  as  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables. 
Take  the  watermelon  for  instance.  The  rich  luscious  fruit 
that  we  find  so  delicious  is  only  a  careful  protection  for 
the  host  of  seeds  in  the  very  heart  of  the  big  treasure  box. 
And  the  apple,  the  pear,  and  the  orange  —  to  us  these  are 


158       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

the  most  important  things  about  the  trees  which  bear  them. 
But  to  the  trees  themselves  it  is  the  little  seeds  within  these 
richly  colored  treasure  boxes  that  are  important. 

How  are  seeds  scattered?  By  the  wind,  by  water,  and 
by  animals.  Coconuts  and  certain  beans  and  grains 
have  been  carried  clear  across  the  sea  by  the  action  of  the 
waves,  and  have  been  planted  upon  new  shores.  Man 
scatters  more  seeds  than  all  other  agencies  combined;  he 
is  continually  buying,  selling,  and  planting  seeds.  Hang 
pods,  shells  and  burrs  where  children  can  watch  them  open- 
ing. Open  a  ripe  milkweed  pod;  put  the  seeds  in  a  bottle, 
so  that  the  pupils  may  see  how  many  seeds  were  packed  in 
the  tiny  treasure  box.  Estimate  the  number  of  seeds 
growing  on  a  single  plant.  Why  are  the  seeds  provided 
with  sails?  What  would  happen  if  they  all  settled  down 
close  about  the  mother  plant?  Lead  the  children  to  see  that 
the  struggle  for  life  is  less  where  the  plants  are  different 
than  in  a  clump  where  all  are  alike. 

Make  a  school  collection  of  garden,  field,  and  weed  seeds. 
For  this  purpose  two-ounce  bottles  with  screw  tops  are 
best.  They  may  be  labeled  as  useful  seeds,  pests,  ways  of 
distribution,  and  so  on. 

Bring  in  as  many  nut  " samples"  as  possible,  for  a  nut 
party. 

Let  all  the  work  with  seeds,  fruit,  and  nuts  typify  the  glory 
of  the  harvest  home.  (Read  Dunbar's  "Merry  Autumn.") 

Songs: 

" October,"   and  "  Nutting  Time." 
Poems: 

"The  Pumpkin,"   "The  Fruit  Gift,"   "The  Huskers,"  by 
Whittier. 


NATURE   STUDY  159 

"The  Cornfields,"  by  Mary  Howitt. 

"  Indian  Summer,"  by  Emily  Dickinson. 

"The  Cornstalk  Fiddle,"  by  Paul  Laurence  Dunbar. 

"When  the  Frost  is  on  the  Punkin,"  by  J.  Whitcomb  Riley. 

"Maize  for  the  Nation's  Emblem,"  by  Celia  Thaxter. 

"A  Thanksgiving,"  by  Lucy  Larcom. 

BIRDS 

Read  Stedman's  "Flight  of  the  Birds."     Talk  about 
migration. 

1.  Have  pupils  tell  which  birds  are  the  first  to  go. 
Why  do  they  leave? 

2.  Do  the  birds  that  go  south  nest  there? 

3.  What  birds  stay  all  the  year?     Bring  out  the  idea  that 
birds  living  on  worms  and  insects  could  find  no  food  in 
winter.     Those  living  on  seeds  sometimes  remain  in  the 
North  if  the  weather  is  not  too  severe. 

4.  Hawks  are  more  or  less  troublesome  at  this  time  of 
year.     Talk  about  the  common  chicken  hawk,  the  little 
blue  darter,  the  sparrow  hawk,  and  the  sharp-shinned  hawk. 
Are  the  hawks  enemies  of  mankind?     (See  Birds  That 
Hunt  and  Are  Hunted,  by  Neltje  Blanchan.) 

5.  Learn  to  know  some  of  the  common  water  birds. 

6.  Do  the  birds  change  their  dress  for  winter?     Bobolink 
and  goldfinch  are  familiar  types. 

Poems: 

"To  a  Waterfowl,"  by  Bryant. 

"The  Herons  of  Elmwood,"  by  Longfellow. 

"The  Departure  of  the  Swallow,"  by  W.  Howitt. 

"The  Wanderings  of  the  Birds." 

"The  Last  Robin,"  by  H.  S.  Washburn. 

"Story  of  a  Blackbird,"  by  Alice  Gary. 


l6o       THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY    . 
ANIMALS   AND   INSECTS 

When  we  are  getting  ready  for  winter,  what  are  all  the 
wood  animals  doing?  Do  they  know  that  winter  is  com- 
ing? How  do  the  squirrels,  the  chipmunks,  and  the  field 
mice  prepare  for  winter?  Who  has  discovered  the  fur- 
lined  nest  of  a  field  mouse  under  some  low,  sheltered 
shrub,  or  dug  into  a  squirrel's  underground  storehouse? 
Does  the  rabbit  prepare  for  winter?  Question  children  to 
bring  out  stories  and  habits  of  these  little  friends  in  fur. 
Read  and  discuss  selections  from  Sharp  Eyes  by  Gibson; 
read  Queer  Ways  of  Br'er  Rabbit  by  W.  Long.  Mention 
enemies  of  the  squirrels  and  rabbits,  hawks,  owls,  weasels, 
foxes,  hedgehogs,  cats,  and  man.  Read  Riverby  by  Bur- 
roughs, and  the  fable  of  the  Hare  and  the  Tortoise. 

How  does  the  bear  prepare  for  winter?  He  eats  a  great 
deal  and  gets  very  fat.  Then  he  hunts  about  for  a  snug 
den  in  a  hillside  or  for  a  sheltered  hollow  log  or  tree;  here 
he  sleeps  until  roused  by  the  voices  of  spring.  Ask  the 
children  to  learn  about  other  animals  that  spend  the  winter 
in  sleep.  Read  Ways  of  Wood  Folk,  by  William  Long. 

What  about  toads,  frogs,  and  turtles?  They  burrow  deep 
into  the  mud  before  the  ground  freezes.  Bats  hang  them- 
selves up  by  their  toes  in  some  cosy  corner  and  sleep  most 
of  the  time.  The  nuthatches,  chickadees,  and  woodpeckers 
make  many  a  winter  meal  from  the  countless  insects  and 
larvae  sheltered  under  the  bark  of  the  trees.  Flies  creep 
into  snug  corners  and  cracks  and  lie  as  though  dead,  creep- 
ing out  occasionally  on  warm,  dry  days.  Spiders  crawl 
into  their  dens  and  go  fast  asleep.  Caterpillars  build 
cradles  for  themselves  on  the  sunny  side  of  twigs  and  limbs, 
and  under  rocks  and  logs.  How  many  have  seen  these  odd 


NATURE    STUDY  l6l 

cradles,  or  cocoons,  as  they  are  called?  They  are  woven 
of  fine  silken  thread,  with  now  and  then  a  bit  of  moss 
twined  in  for  warmth  and  strength,  and  so  fashioned 
that  the  caterpillar  is  securely  shut  up  inside.  Here  he 
sheds  his  furry  coat  and  dons  a  shiny,  hard,  brown  one. 
The  old  coat  is  rolled  up  at  his  feet,  and  he  goes  to  sleep 
snug  and  warm  till  spring  calls.  Who  knows  what  hap- 
pens then? 

Talk  about  the  habits  of  frogs  and  toads.  Of  what  use 
are  they?  Frogs  destroy  large  numbers  of  slugs  and  insects 
and  serve  in  their  turn  as  food  for  other  animals.  Toads 
destroy  countless  worms  and  larvae  that  are  injurious  to 
vegetation.  They  are  valued  allies  in  the  garden  and  ex- 
cellent flytraps!1 

What  becomes  of  the  bees  and  wasps  in  winter?  Who  in 
the  summer  has  seen  where  a  wasp  has  dug  a  tunnel  in 
the  packed  sand,  laid  its  eggs  at  the  bottom,  provisioned  it 
with  grasshoppers,  and  then  filled  it  up  so  carefully  that 
there  was  not  a  sign  of  the  secret  chamber? 

How  do  the  ants,  beetles,  and  grasshoppers  spend  the 
winter? 

References: 

Bass,   Florence.     Highways   and  Byways   and   Stories   of 
Insect  Life. 

Beard,  J.  C.     Curious  Homes  and  Their  Tenants. 

Burroughs,  John.     Birds  and  Bees. 

Comstock,  J.  H.     The  Spider  Book. 

Ingersoll,  Ernest.     Wild  Neighbors. 

Kelly,  M.  A.  B.    Short  Stories  of  Our  Shy  Neighbors. 

Morley,  M.  W.    Bee  People. 

Patri,  Angelo.     White  Patch. 
1  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  196:   Usefulness  of  the  American  Toad. 


162       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

WINTER  NATURE  STUDY 

Have  the  pupils  observe  frost  pictures  on  the  windows. 
What  is  the  difference  between  dew  and  frost?  Does  the  frost 
ever  do  harm?  Mention  some  good  services  it  performs : 

1.  It  breaks  up  the  soil. 

2.  It  crumbles  rocks  to  help  form  soil. 

3.  It  opens  nuts  for  the  children  and  the  squirrels. 

4.  It  forms  ice  and  snowflakes. 

What  did  the  brook  do  when  it  felt  the  frost  coming? 
Help  the  children  to  see  the  beauty  in  Lowell's  lines. 

The  little  brook  heard  it  and  built  a  roof 

'Neath  which  he  could  house  him,  winter  proof; 

All  night  by  the  white  stars'  frosty  gleams 

He  groined  his  arches  and  matched  his  beams; 

Slender  and  clear  were  his  crystal  spars 

As  the  lashes  of  light  that  trim  the  stars; 

He  sculptured  every  summer  delight 

In  his  halls  and  chambers  out  of  sight; 

Sometimes  his  tinkling  waters  slipt; 

Down  through  a  frost-leaved  forest  crypt, 

Long,  sparkling  aisles  of  steel-stemmed  trees 

Bending  to  counterfeit  a  breeze; 

Sometimes  the  roof  no  fretwork  knew 

But  silvery  mosses  that  downward  grew; 

Sometimes  it  was  carved  in  sharp  relief 

With  quaint  arabesques  of  ice  fern  leaf; 

Sometimes  it  was  simply  smooth  and  clear 

For  the  gladness  of  heaven  to  shine  through,  and  here 

He  had  caught  the  nodding  bulrush  tops 

And  hung  them  thickly  with  diamond  drops, 

That  crystalled  the  beams  of  moon  and  sun, 

And  made  a  star  of  every  one; 

No  mortal  builder's  most  rare  device 

Could  match  this  winter  palace  of  ice. 


NATURE   STUDY  163 

Read  also  "The  Frost,"  by  Hannah  Gould;  "The  Frost 
Spirit,"  by  Whittier,  and  similar  poems. 

Put  a  dark  cloth  outside  the  window  and  catch  some 
snowflakes  upon  it.  Have  the  children  see  how  many 
kinds  they  can  find.  Note  that  each  one  has  six  points  — 
no  matter  how  different  they  are.  Of  what  use  is  the 
snow?  Discuss  icebergs,  ice  fields,  the  land  of  the  Eskimo. 
The  teacher  will  need  to  draw  heavily  upon  her  store  of 
pictures  to  make  these  real  to  the  children.  Read  from 
such  books  as  Little  People  of  the  Snow,  by  L.  E.  Mulcts, 
and  The  Land  of  the  Long  Night,  by  P.  B.  Du  Chaillu. 

Talk  about  winter  sports.  Question  the  children  to  get 
their  ideal  of  a  winter  evening  at  home.  Read  the  evening 
scene  from  Whitter's  "Snow  Bound." 

THE   TREES 

Winter  is  the  best  season  of  the  year  to  read  the  sign 
language  of  the  trees.  From  it  we  may  gather  all  manner 
of  interesting  things  concerning  their  hopes  and  disappoint- 
ments, the  trouble  with  their  neighbors,  the  secret  of  age, 
how  they  prune  themselves,  how  they  take  care  of  cuts, 
bruises,  and  broken  limbs,  and  their  struggle  with  a  long 
catalogue  of  tree  diseases,  most  of  which  are  catching,  like 
the  scarlet  fever  and  the  mumps.  Now,  too,  we  may  best 
observe  the  shape  and  branching  of  the  trees  and  make  a 
collection  of  woods. 

Show  the  children  that  it  is  possible  to  discern  the  kind 
of  a  tree  at  a  distance  by  its  outline  alone.  Take,  for 
example,  the  full-grown  oak  as  it  stands  rugged  against  the 
winter  sky.  Note  the  flare  of  its  broad  base,  the  wide 
sweep  of  its  gnarled  and  mighty  arms,  each  one  resembling 


1 64       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

a  tree.     In  the  whole  aspect  of  its  breadth  and  tolerance  is 
the  dignity  of  a  patriarch,  the  majesty  of  a  king. 

A  song  to  the  oak  —  the  brave  old  oak 

Who  hath  ruled  in  the  greenwood  long; 
Here's  health  and  renown  to  his  broad  green  crown, 

And  his  fifty  arms  so  strong. 
There's  fear  in  his  frown  when  the  sun  goes  down, 

And  the  fire  in  the  west  fades  out; 
And  he  showeth  his  might  on  a  wild  midnight, 

When  the  storms  through  his  branches  shout.1 

Study  the  shape  of  the  elm;  compare  with  an  umbrella 
or  vase.  Note  the  graceful,  arching  branches;  the  rough, 
dark-gray  bark. 

Find  examples  of  trees  that  send  out  their  branches 
horizontally,  like  an  apple  tree;  or  incline  them  toward  the 
earth,  like  a  willow;  or  hollow  them  cup  fashion,  like  the 
sassafras;  or  build  them  up  mushroom  shape,  like  the  pine; 
or  into  pyramids,  tall  and  straight,  like  the  poplar;  or  that 
allow  them  to  wave  at  the  pleasure  of  the  winds,  like  the 
birch. 

Always  the  trees  have  been  reverenced  for  their  grace 
and  beauty.  Simple-minded  people  of  all  races  have  wor- 
shipped the  spirit  of  the  trees,  and  their  records  in  myth 
and  folklore  are  a  source  of  never-failing  interest  to  the 
children.  Read  "The  Talking  Oak,"  by  Tennyson.  Tell 
the  legend  of  the  aspen  tree,  the  story  of  the  Lombardy 
poplar  and  the  pot  of  gold,  and  other  tree  legends.  Poets, 
artists,  and  naturalists  have  found  the  trees  themes  for 
closest  study,  until  now  there  is  scarcely  a  tree  that  is  not 
said  to  typify  some  virtue  of  humanity.  The  oak  is  an 
1  Henry  F.  Chorley. 


NATURE    STUDY  165 

example  of  rugged  strength;  the  pine  represents  constancy; 
the  beech,  with  its  low,  wide-spreading  branches,  is  a  pic- 
ture of  hospitality;  and  so  on.  Coleridge  personified  the 
white  birch  as  the  "Lady  of  the  Woods,"  the  ash  is  spoken 
of  as  "The  Venus  of  the  Forest,"  the  Psalmist  compares  a 
godly  man  to  a  tree  that  is  planted  by  rivers  of  water,  whose 
leaf  shall  not  wither.  Pupils  will  enjoy  searching  the 
pages  of  literature  for  types,  personifications,  and  emblems; 
they  may  also  be  led  to  form  symbols  of  their  own. 

It  is  well  to  study  certain  trees  as  individual  types.     Let 
us  consider  the  oak  for  instance. 

THE   OAK 

1.  Shape  of  trunk,  color  and  texture  of  bark;  arrange- 
ment of  branches;   the  strong  taproot  deep  in  the  ground, 
the  wide-spreading  horizontal  roots  near  the  surface. 

2.  Kinds  of  oaks  —  about  300  in  the  world.     Talk  about 
the  cork  oaks.     Find  out  how  cork  is  prepared  for  the 
market. 

3.  The  blossom:   the  oak  bears  two  kinds  of  flowers  on 
the  same  tree.     The  staminate  flowers  are  in  catkins.     The 
pistillate  flowers  look  like  tiny  balls.     The  pistil  becomes 
the  nut  of  the  acorn. 

4.  The  fruit:   some  oaks  drop  their  acorns  in  early  fall; 
others  wait  a  year  and  a  half.     Put  an  acorn  in  a  bottle  of 
water  and  watch  the  beginning  of  an  oak.     Plant  another 
in  a  box  of  moist  sand  and  note  how  the  growing  end  is 
protected  from  injury  as  it  pushes  upward. 

5.  The  age  of  the  tree:   the  older  pupils  will  know  how 
to  tell  the  age  of  a  fallen  tree  by  counting  the  rings  of 
growth  in  the  stump.     They  will  be  interested  in  learning 


1 66       THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

how  to  tell  the  age  of  a  live  tree.  A  branch  forms  buds  at 
the  end  of  the  growing  season,  and  in  the  spring  it  starts  to 
grow  by  casting  off  the  scales  that  protected  these  buds 
from  the  cold.  So  the  twig  length  between  rings  of  scars 
left  by  the  scales  marks  a  year's  growth.  It  is  easy  to  tell 
the  approximate  age  of  a  tree  by  counting  these  rings  from 
tip  to  base  of  twigs.  The  oldest  branches  are  usually  a 
year  younger  than  the  main  stem.  Every  branch,  large 
or  small,  must  be  at  least  a  year  younger  than  the  stem 
that  bears  it.  The  youngest  wood  bears  buds  in  winter; 
in  summer  all  the  leaves  are  borne  directly  upon  shoots  that 
grew  from  the  winter  buds.  With  these  clews  in  mind,  and 
experience  gained  by  a  few  tests,  judgment  becomes  very 
nearly  accurate.  It  may  be  tested  by  cutting  stems  on 
young  trees  and  counting  pith  rings. 

Do  oak  trees  die  of  old  age?  There  are  oak  trees  in 
England  that  are  more  than  a  thousand  years  old.  Find 
the  average  girth  of  oaks  in  your  vicinity.  The  Round 
Table  of  King  Arthur  at  Winchester  is  from  a  cross  section 
of  an  oak  eighteen  feet  in  diameter. 

6.  Ancient  tales,  legends,  and  superstitions  of  the  oak  are 
numerous.     Find  out  about  the  prophetic  oak  of  Dodona; 
the  old  Roman  "Chaplet  of  leaves";  the  " fairy  pathways" 
in  the  base  of  old  oaks  in  Germany ;  Thor's  oak  in  the  Hessian 
country;  Oak  Apple  day;  the  Charter  Oak;  the  Royal  Oak. 

7.  Uses  of  the  Oak. 

(a)  It  produces  wood  of  great  strength  and  durabil- 

ity, valuable  for  building  purposes. 

(b)  Its  bark  is  used  for  tanning  and  dyeing. 

(c)  Its  acorn  is  a  food  in  certain  parts  of  Asia. 

8.  Pupils  should  bring  in  poems  descriptive  of  the  oak. 


NATURE    STUDY  167 

Other  trees  which  make  interesting  studies  are  the  elm, 
maple,  willow,  hickory,  ash,  birch,  linden,  poplar,  and  the 
evergreens.  Read  "The  Deacon's  Masterpiece,"  by 
Holmes,  and  about  the  building  of  Hiawatha's  canoe,  by 
Longfellow. 

Certain  products  of  the  forest  should  be  studied.  Each 
topic  may  serve  as  the  source  of  one  or  more  lessons,  or  the 
subjects  may  be  assigned  individually.  Lumber  and  fuel, 
fruits  and  nuts,  medicinal  and  other  useful  barks,  sap 
products  and  such  products  as  coal  and  paper  should  be 
made  interesting. 

From  a  study  of  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  trees  and 
the  individual  use  of  certain  types,  it  is  but  a  step  to  the 
large  use  and  value  of  trees  as  a  whole,  and  the  subject  of 
national  forestry.  Question  the  children  to  bring  out  the 
service  of  trees  to  man.  The  following  points  will  need 
introduction;  for  their  amplification,  refer  to  any  standard 
work  on  trees. 

1.  Trees  are  important  agents  of  nature  for  carrying  the 
moisture  of  the  earth  into  the  air. 

2.  Trees  may  be  agents  in  producing  rain. 

3.  Trees  are  a  considerable  protection  against  floods  and 
overflow. 

4.  Trees  are  great  makers  of  soil. 

5.  Trees  are  invaluable  in  purifying  and  renovating  the 
atmosphere. 

6.  Trees  are  of  immense  importance  in  affording  shelter 
to  birds  and  beasts  of  the  chase,  and  in  the  many  produc- 
tions which  they  furnish. 

Since  the  day  of  the  great  Prankish  king,  Charlemagne, 
efforts  have  been  made  for  the  preservation  of  the  forests. 


1 68   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

The  head  of  this  work  in  our  country  is  the  Bureau  of 
Forestry  under  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  Our  national  forests  include  over  150,000,- 
ooo  acres.  They  are  divided  into  six  districts,  each  in 
charge  of  a  supervisor.  Immediately  under  the  supervisor 
each  forest  has  a  deputy  supervisor,  a  forest  assistant,  besides 
a  number  of  rangers  and  guards.  The  business  of  the 
forester  is  to  destroy  the  animals  which  rob  the  farmers 
and  stockmen  (mountain  lions,  wolves,  wildcats,  bears, 
coyotes,  and  lynxes);  to  keep  a  constant  and  careful 
watch  for  fires;  to  sow  seeds  that  the  forests  may  be  per- 
petuated; to  govern  the  grazing  within  their  boundaries; 
to  cut  out  the  "weeds"  among  the  trees. 

The  industry  of  forestry  is  second  to  that  of  agriculture 
in  the  number  of  people  and  amount  of  capital  employed 
and  in  value  of  product.  Much  useful  information  may  be 
had  by  applying  for  the  free  bulletins  of  the  bureau. 

The  Bureau  of  Wood  Utilization  also  issues  many  bulle- 
tins of  interest.  The  business  of  this  bureau  is  to  prevent 
wood  waste.  The  bureau  was  founded  in  1909,  so  its  career 
of  usefulness  is  only  just  beginning,  but  already  it  has  been 
instrumental  in  saving  many  trees  and  thousands  of  dollars 
to  workers  in  wood. 

Some  Interesting  Subjects  for  Composition: 

The  Life  of  a  Forest  Ranger. 

Training  for  a  Forester.  (There  are  some  twenty  schools 
of  forestry  in  the  United  States,  of  which  the  one  at  Cornell 
University  is  the  pioneer.) 

What  can  be  made  from  Sawdust. 

The  Tale  of  a  Balsam  Pillow. 

Uses  for  Mill  Waste. 


NATURE    STUDY  169 

BIRDS 

Chic-chic-a-dee-dee!  saucy  note 
Out  of  sound  heart  and  merry  throat, 
As  if  it  said,  "Good-day,  good  Sir! 
Fine  afternoon,  old  passenger! 
Happy  to  meet  you  in  these  places, 
Where  January  brings  few  faces.1 

Long  live  the  winter  birds!  This  is  the  thought  that 
comes  to  us  as  we  gaze  from  our  window  on  a  cheerless 
winter  day.  How  bleak  and  bare  that  old  tree  would  seem 
were  it  not  for  that  dear  little  kinglet  who  jumps,  and  flits, 
and  pipes  his  shrill  little  note!  His  merriment  and  good 
cheer  soon  attract  a  friend  from  a  tall  weed  stalk  in  the 
garden  —  a  bright  little  chap  in  a  combination  suit  of  red- 
dish drab  and  soiled  brownish  white,  with  a  yellow  head. 
He  is  a  stranger,  but  withal  there  is  something  about  him 
decidedly  familiar,  and  when  he  suddenly  calls  out  "Ker- 
chee,  chee,  chee!"  we  clap  our  hands  in  delight.  It  is  our 
dear  little  friend  the  goldfinch  in  his  winter  suit! 

Let  us  spread  a  banquet  for  the  birds  and  see  how  many 
friends  we  can  entice.  A  tree  close  to  the  schoolroom 
window  is  best.  Suspend  pieces  of  suet  and  meat  bones 
in  the  branches  here  and  there,  add  tiny  baskets  of  seed 
and  bran,  and  some  apples  thrust  securely  upon  the  twigs. 
A  tree  so  provisioned  throughout  the  winter  months  will 
provide  scores  of  interesting  bird  studies.  Besides  the 
familiar  sparrows,  blue  jays,  hairy  woodpeckers,  gold- 
finches, occasional  robins,  and  belated  meadow  larks  will 
come  dozens  of  other  would-be  friends.  Some  of  these  are 
resident  birds. 

1  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 


i;o       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

Do  you  know  the  little  titmouse, 

In  his  brownish-ashen  coat, 
With  his  cap  so  black  and  jaunty, 

And  a  black  patch  on  his  throat? 1 

Chickadee  (Little  Friend)  is  the  common  name  for  the 
titmouse.  He  is  a  cheery,  fearless  little  bird,  grateful  for 
the  smallest  favors,  and  may  readily  be  coaxed  to  eat  from 
the  hands  of  his  friends. 

The  nuthatches  are  interesting  citizens.  They  delight 
in  clinging  head  downwards,  searching  under  the  bark  for 
eggs  and  unwary  insects.  Regular  little  acrobats  they 
are,  performing  all  sorts  of  laughable  feats  with  ease  and 
agility.  A  pair  of  these  birds  used  to  have  great  fun 
swinging  on  a  clothes  line  on  a  friend's  back  porch.  They 
would  grasp  the  line  firmly,  and  swing  head  downward 
until  it  would  seem  as  though  their  brains  must  be  in  a 
whirl.  All  at  once  they  would  flit  away  to  a  tall  poplar 
near  by  and  run  eagerly  up  the  trunk,  then  come  back  again 
pell-mell  and  take  another  whirl  on  the  line.  They  seldom 
touched  the  ground,  and  when  they  did  they  squatted  and 
sprawled  about  very  awkwardly.  The  white-breasted  nut- 
hatch is  the  best  known.  His  cousin,  the  red-breasted  nut- 
hatch, is  smaller  and  seldom  seen  south  of  the  most  northerly 
states.  Both  are  little  slate-colored  birds  with  black  caps 
and  necks.  The  white-breasted  nuthatch  has  a  coarse,  funny 
call:  "Quank/  quank!  yank!  hank!"  between  mouthfuls. 

The  red-headed  woodpecker  is  very  irregular  in  his 
goings  and  comings.  He  likes  to  winter  in  localities  where 
beechnuts  are  plentiful.  It  is  fun  to  watch  him  dig  for 
buried  stores.  "His  deliberate,  dignified  ways  and  his 

*M.  A.  B.Kelly. 


NATURE    STUDY  I1]  I 

bright  uniform  of  red,  white,  and  steel  blue  bespeak  him 
as  an  officer  of  rank."  There  are  those  who  contend  that 
as  the  red-headed  woodpecker  represents  our  national 
colors,  and  as  he  is  so  much  more  familiar  to  all,  he  should 
be  the  national  bird,  instead  of  the  eagle. 

South  of  parallel  thirty-six,  the  redbird  or  cardinal 
grosbeak,  the  Carolina  wren  —  "  little  sweeter'n  evers" 
one  family  dubs  them,  because  of  their  continued  twitter: 
"  Sweeter'n  ever,  sweeter'n  ever," — and  an  occasional 
mocking  bird  and  cedar  waxwing  will  call  frequently  for 
a  taste  of  the  bill  of  fare. 

Other  guests  at  the  banquet  tree  will  be  made  up  of 
winter  visitors  —  those  birds  which  come  to  us  from  some 
northern  country  along  late  in  the  fall  with  the  cold  winds 
and  the  snow,  and  return  to  their  home  again  in  the  spring. 
Among  these  are  the  snow  buntings  or  snowflakes,  the  win- 
ter wrens,  the  shrike  or  butcher  bird,  the  pine  finch  or  linnet, 
the  golden-crested  kinglet,  the  juncos  or  snowbirds,  the  pine 
grosbeak,  the  American  crossbill,  and  the  brown  creeper. 

The  shrike  is  a  strange  character.  Reckless,  relentless, 
daring,  bravest  of  the  brave,  he  is  the  smallest  bird  of  prey, 
being  about  the  size  of  the  robin.  He  is  also  classed  among 
the  song  birds,  and,  while  mating  and  nesting  at  home  in 
Canadian  and  other  northern  regions,  he  pours  forth  from 
his  "erstwhile  reeking  beak"  a  sweet,  warbling  love  song 
that  thrills  his  chance  hearers  with  delight.  He  is  an 
ominous-looking  bird,  with  a  hawk's  bill  and  sparrow's  feet. 
His  body  is  ash-colored,  the  wings  and  tail  are  black  with 
white  markings,  and  the  forehead  whitish  with  a  narrow 
black  stripe  through  the  eye.  His  call  resembles  a  creak- 
ing hinge.  He  has  some  ventriloquistic  powers,  and  often 


172       THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

imitates  the  cry  of  small  birds,  enticing  them  within  easy 
range  and  then  pouncing  upon  them.  His  mandibles  are 
strong  and  cruel,  and  he  makes  short  work  of  his  poor  little 
victim.  If  he  does  not  happen  to  be  hungry,  he  hangs  the 
little  body  on  a  tree,  or  on  a  barbed- wire  fence  just  as  a 
butcher  would  hang  up  a  beef,  and  leaves  it.  He  seems 
seldom  to  go  back  to  eat  his  victim,  which  may  indicate 
that  he  often  inflicts  death  just  for  the  mere  love  of 
killing. 

With  the  exception  of  the  winter  wren  and  the  humming 
bird,  the  kinglet  is  the  smallest  bird  that  we  have,  being 
about  two  inches  smaller  than  the  sparrow.  He  is  a  nerv- 
ous, energetic  little  chap,  never  still.  Like  the  nuthatch, 
"head  upward,  head  downward,  it's  all  one  to  him."  His 
love  song  is  a  beautiful  lyric,  out  of  all  proportion  to  his 
size,  and  he  frequently  favors  us  with  a  few  practice  solos 
before  flying  north  in  April. 

Poems: 

"The  Sparrows,"  by  Celia  Thaxter. 

"The  Blue  Jay,"  by  Susan  H.  Swett. 

"Snowflakes,"  by  Longfellow. 

"The  White-breasted  Nuthatch,"  by  Edith  Thomas. 

"The  Legend  of  the  Crossbill,"  by  Longfellow. 

MINERALS 

Winter  is  a  good  time  to  make  collections  of  minerals. 
Iron  ore,  copper,  limestone,  shale,  sandstone,  coal,  marble, 
and  granite  are  easily  obtained  by  exchange  and  otherwise, 
and  make  interesting  topics  for  geography  and  composition. 
Subjects  should  be  assigned  and  compositions  required  that 
thoroughly  cover  the  matter  in  hand.  Use  pictures  liberally. 
Many  post  cards  of  interest  may  be  obtained  by  exchange. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  AGRICULTURE 

Agriculture  in  the  schools  of  our  land  has  come  to  stay. 
Nor  is  it  to  be  considered  a  concession  to  farming  or  to  the 
farmers;  it  is  the  direct  outgrowth  of  the  school's  obligation 
to  fit  the  pupils  for  higher  citizenship  —  the  realization 
that  the  school  must  do  more  than  train  the  mind  alone. 
Neither  is  it  an  experimental  theory.  For  nearly  twenty- 
five  hundred  years  Persian  schoolboys  have  received 
instruction  in  agriculture  and  horticulture,  in  gardens  set 
apart  for  the  purpose.  Educational  gardens  have  existed 
in  central  Europe  since  the  Middle  Ages.  To-day  there 
are  more  than  eight  thousand  school  gardens  in  Austria 
alone.  To  Mr.  H.  S.  Clapp,  of  Boston,  belongs  the  honor 
of  starting  the  first  American  school  garden  (1890).  This 
garden  was  originally  intended  for  wild  flowers,  but  it 
proved  so  helpful  and  interesting  that  a  large  vegetable 
garden  was  added.  Massachusetts  as  a  state  has  taken 
more  or  less  initiative  in  school  agriculture ;  closely  seconded 
by  Ohio,  until  now  all  the  states  are  interested,  and  there  is 
scarcely  one  but  has  organized  agricultural  clubs  of  some 
sort,  with  a  state  leader  in  charge,  the  state  College  of 
Agriculture  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture cooperating. 

But  yet,  in  spite  of  the  corn  and  pig  clubs  of  the  central 
states,  the  potato,  poultry,  and  hay  clubs  of  New  England, 
and  the  cotton  clubs  of  the  South,  agriculture  in  many 

173 


174   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

schools  is  not  a  success.  Why?  The  teacher  is  often 
teaching  it  because  compelled  to  do  so  by  law,  and  not 
because  of  a  vital  interest  in  the  subject  or  a  determina- 
tion to  press  its  importance  home.  She  teaches  just  what 
the  textbook  says,  perhaps  performs  some  of  the  experi- 
ments suggested.  As  for  a  school  garden,  there  is  no  time 
for  such  work,  the  curriculum  is  already  overcrowded,  and 
the  salary  does  not  compensate  for  the  extra  work.  Often, 
too,  there  is  a  deep-rooted  sentiment  against  "book 
farming." 

The  wise  teacher  makes  haste  to  correlate  the  study  of 
agriculture  with  the  problems  of  the  neighborhood.  For 
example,  some  such  conversation  as  the  following  may  serve 
as  the  opening  wedge:  "Boys,  what  is  the  matter  with  that 
field  of  wheat  across  the  way?" 

"The  land  is  worn  out,"  is  the  quick  reply.  "Wheat 
has  been  grown  there  for  three  years,  without  manuring 
the  field  at  all." 

'  Do  you  mean  to  say  that  the  land  is  absolutely  worth- 
less, that  it  is  too  worn  out  to  produce  any  kind  of  a 
crop?" 

"Oh,  no  indeed!  It  just  won't  grow  wheat  again  with- 
out a  rest.  It  might  perhaps  raise  a  pretty  fair  crop  of 
corn." 

"You  mean,  then,  that  the  wheat,  being  a  great  lover 
of  nitrogen,  has  used  up  so  much  that  there  is  not  enough 
left  to  produce  a  wheat  crop.  If  the  owner  had  manured 
the  place  he  would  have  restored  the  nitrogen,  in  the  form 
of  liquid  ammonia.  The  same  result  could  have  been 
accomplished  by  turning  under  a  green  crop,  such  as 
clover,  buckwheat,  or  rye." 


WHAT  TO   DO   WITH  AGRICULTURE      .  175 

"One  of  our  neighbors  tried  that,"  observes  a  member 
of  the  class,  conclusively.  "He  turned  under  a  crop  of 
buckwheat,  and  just  about  killed  his  land." 

"Oh,  I  know  about  that,"  volunteers  another  lad 
eagerly.  "He  did  not  turn  under  a  green  crop.  The  straw 
was  nearly  ripe !  Father  said  to  do  any  good  it  should  have 
been  turned  under  just  as  the  crop  was  coming  into  blossom ; 
for,  up  to  that  time,  the  chief  growth  was  from  the  air, 
with  very  little  drain  upon  the  soil." 

"Mother  says  if  our  book  on  agriculture  was  any  good, 
it  ought  to  tell  why  we  can't  grow  cabbage  in  our  garden," 
complains  a  girl  somewhat  timidly.  "  It  has  been  manured 
thoroughly,  so  it  does  not  lack  nitrogen.  There  is  plenty 
of  humus  turned  under  always  in  the  decayed  vegetable 
matter.  And  it  is  not  potash,  for  we  always  put  on  ashes 
to  keep  away  bugs." 

"Very  likely  the  soil  needs  lime,"  the  teacher  suggests 
quickly.  "Cabbages  love  lime.  Suppose  you  try  work- 
ing in  a  little  around  each  plant.  Bring  some  of  the  soil 
to  school  and  we  will  test  it  for  acidity." 

The  way  is  now  open  for  a  study  of  soils,  and  it  would  be 
a  very  poor  teacher  indeed  who  could  not  soon  have  the 
class  teeming  with  interest.  Any  good  text  on  agriculture 
will  furnish  suggestions  for  developing  a  number  of  soil 
problems.  The  following  are  pertinent  queries  for  in- 
vestigation: 

1.  Why  do  soils  become  acid? 

2.  What  is  an  alkaline  soil?    How  may  such  soil  be 
improved? 

3.  How  does  moisture  hold  soil  together  and  move  in  it? 
How  may  soil  moisture  be  saved? 


176       THE  TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

4.  What  is  the  nature  of  swamp  soils?    How  can  they 
be  made  productive? 

5.  How  does  drainage  benefit  soil  and  crops? 

6.  Look  into  the  need  for  soil  ventilation.     Is  it  possible 
for  soil  to  be  too  thoroughly  ventilated?    What  is  a  soil 
mulch? 

Special  Topics: 

1.  Irrigation:    how  irrigation  water  is  measured;  three 
methods   of    irrigation;    some    famous   irrigation   plants; 
water  as  wealth  in  southern  California. 

2.  Talk  about  tiling,  and  about  the  reclamation  of  the 
swamp  lands  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Study  instances  of  drainage  by  dikes,  ditches,  and 
jetties.     Examples:    the  land  reclaimed  from  the  sea  in 
Holland;  the  Mississippi  jetties. 

4.  Fertilizers:    All  of  the  large  packing  houses   make 
fertilizers,  composed  of  blood  and  bone  and  manure  mix- 
tures, which  are  especially  strong  in  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phorus.    Secure  samples  of  these.     Examine  samples  of 
rock  phosphates.     Find  out  if  any  commercial  fertilizers 
have    been   used   in    the    neighborhood,    and   what   was 
the  result.     Discuss    the  value  of    lime  as  a  fertilizer. 
See  Bulletins  Nos.  141-159,  Experiment  Station,  Wooster, 
Ohio. 

5.  Secure   samples   of   the   four   principal   farm    soils: 
sandy,  clay,  loam,  and  limestone.     Compare  them  as  to 
color  and  weight,  and  as  to  size  of  particles. 

Problems: 

i.  What  is  the  best  soil?  The  standard  of  perfection 
in  soils  is  the  "crumb  structure,"  a  condition  where  the 
soil  is  crumbly  and  porous,  but  not  too  loose;  firm  but  not 


WHAT  TO  DO   WITH  AGRICULTURE  177 

hard  or  consolidated;  close-grained  but  not  run  together  or 
adhesive.     Examine  some  good  garden  soil. 

2.  What  is  meant  by   texture   and   structure  of   soil? 
Soil  structure  depends  upon  the  proportion  or  percentage  of 
the  different-sized    grains  of  rock  particles  in  the  soil. 
Structure  is  their  arrangement  or  grouping  together,  and 
the  size  and  percentage  of  the  empty  spaces  called  "  voids." 
Except  in  the  driest  sand  or  dust,  soil  particles  are  not  in 
actual  contact,  but  are  separated  by  a  thin  film  of  water 
which  holds  the  particles  together  in  a  mass.     If  greatly 
magnified,  a  bit  of  soil  would  look  like  bits  of  rock  of  all 
sizes  and  shapes,  that  had  been  moistened  and  then  loosely 
piled  together,  leaving  abundant  air  spaces  between  the 
particles,  the  liquid  films  acting  as  an  adhesive. 

3.  What  are  the  functions  of  a  soil?     To  act  as  a  root- 
hold  and  home  for  the  plant  root;  to  serve  as  a  storehouse, 
furnishing  nourishment  for  the  growth  and  maturity  of  the 
plant. 

4.  How  may  soil  be  kept  in  good  tilth?     By  rotation 
that  kills   toxins,   by  drainage,   by  ventilation,   and   by 
stimulating  bacterial  action. 

5.  What  elements  are  usually  lacking  in  soils? 

6.  How  may  soil  be  improved? 

References: 

Story  of  the  Soil,  by  C.  G.  Hopkins. 
Soils,  by  C.  W.  Burkett. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  77,  Liming  of  Soils;  No.  257,  Soil  Fertility;  No.  266, 
Management  of  Soils;  No.  406,  Soil  Conservation;  No.  187, 
Drainage  of  Farm  Lands;  No.  138,  Irrigation  in  Field  and 
Garden;  No.  263,  Practical  Information  for  Beginners  in 
Irrigation. 


178       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 
SOIL   MAKING 

Formation  of  Earth  Crust:  Long  ago  the  earth  was  a  fiery 
mass  of  matter  whirling  through  space.  It  cooled  grad- 
ually, and  as  it  cooled  it  hardened  into  a  sphere.  Its 
surface  was  a  crust  of  solid  rock,  and  all  about  it  were  heavy 
acid  vapors.  Bare  and  lifeless  as  a  great  iron  ball,  it 
whirled  through  space.  There  was  no  foothold  for  the 
tiniest  plant,  no  home  for  the  humblest  insect. 

The  Action  of  Heat  and  Cold:  While  the  earth  was  heated, 
the  rocky  substances  expanded;  as  it  cooled,  the  rock 
contracted,  cracked,  and  broke,  forming  hills  and  valleys. 
The  cold  condensed  the  heavy  acid  vapors  into  rain. 
Continents  rose,  small  at  first,  but  increasing  in  size  as  the 
contraction  went  on;  the  waters  flowed  in  streams  through 
the  narrow  valleys,  and  settled  in  the  deep  depressions  to 
form  lakes,  seas,  and  oceans. 

The  Work  of  the  Atmosphere:  The  air,  gases,  and  vapors 
around  the  earth  crumbled  the  rock  surface  and  bore  the 
rock  dust  from  one  place  to  another. 

The  Work  of  Water,  the  Greatest  of  All  Agents:  In  its 
various  forms  —  vapor,  rain,  dew,  frost,  snow,  and  ice  - 
water  worked  day  and  night,  and  is  still  working.  Read 
"The  Cataract  of  Lodore,"  by  Robert  Southey,  and  try 
to  imagine  its  wonderful  work  as  a  sculptor.  Visit  a  stream 
after  a  heavy  rain.  Why  is  the  water  so  muddy?  Where 
do  the  many  pebbles  in  the  bed  of  the  stream  come  from? 
Which  will  be  carried  farther  by  the  stream,  sand  or 
pebbles? 

The  Breaking  of  Rocks  to  Make  Soil:  Note  the  crumbling 
rocks  along  the  edge  of  a  stream.  What  happens  when 
water  freezes  in  the  crevices  of  rocks?  Collect  specimens 


WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  AGRICULTURE  179 

of  quartz  and  feldspar.  Quartz  is  the  hardest  of  the  com- 
mon minerals.  It  is  very  abundant  and  found  in  a  variety 
of  colors.  Sand  is  powdered  quartz.  Feldspar  has  a 
pearly  luster  and  ranges  from  white  to  light  shades  of  gray, 
pink,  red,  brown,  and  green.  It  is  feldspar  that  gives 
the  color  note  to  the  granites.  In  most  cases  clay  is  derived 
from  disintegrated  feldspar. 

Examine  rock  fissures.  They  are  filled  with  soil,  roots, 
and  water.  Where  did  the  soil  come  from?  How  do  roots 
break  rocks? 

Fungi,  Lichens,  and  Mosses  make  very  interesting 
studies.  They  are  the  simplest  forms  of  vegetable  life, 
yet  they  served  a  purpose  by  no  means  humble  in  the  very 
beginning,  when  the  earth  was  but  a  mass  of  crumbling 
rocks.  They  took  hold  determinedly  here  and  there  in 
crannies  and  crevices,  drawing  some  food  from  the  air  and 
dissolving  and  absorbing  other  food  from  the  rock.  Their 
decay  added  to  the  rock  dust  ground  out  by  wind  and  water, 
and  in  time  this  formed  soil.  A  very  poor  and  shallow  soil 
it  was,  hardly  able  to  furnish  a  foothold  for  the  simple 
plants  that  sought  to  grow  upon  it,  but  countless  genera- 
tions of  life  and  decay  gradually  enriched  it,  until  finally 
the  earth  became  a  fair  garden  spot. 

Have  the  children  examine  fungi  and  lichens  at  work  on 
a  rock.  Learn  to  know  the  commonest  of  the  lichens  — 
the  reindeer  lichen.  The  scarlet-crested  lichen  is  very 
beautiful.  Inside  the  scarlet  tips  the  fruit  is  hidden, 
sealed  up  as  with  sealing  wax.  Now  and  then  we  may  see 
one  of  these  scarlet  tips  yawning  in  the  center  to  let  out  the 
spores.  On  examination  with  a  microscope  the  stems  are 
found  to  be  quite  hollow,  like  macaroni.  Remove  one 


l8o   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

of  the  red  seals  and  see  if  the  spores  can  be  found  anywhere 
in  the  dainty  little  chambers  just  inside.  Lichens  grow  on 
the  bark  of  living  trees,  on  rocks  and  decaying  wood,  and 
on  the  ground;  they  vary  greatly  in  form  and  color.  Some 
of  them  afford  various  colored  dyes,  these  being  obtained 
chiefly  from  rocks  in  the  Azores  and  Canary  Islands. 
Litmus  is  obtained  from  a  lichen.  A  lichen  of  Asia  is  used 
for  food.  The  so-called  reindeer  moss  is  a  lichen.  It  grows 
in  great  profusion  in  the  Arctic  regions  and  is  the  chief  food 
of  the  reindeer. 

Make  a  collection  of  mosses.  See  what  can  be  learned 
about  them  with  the  aid  of  a  microscope.  Keep  a  plate  of 
moist  mosses  and  lichens  in  the  schoolroom.  One  may  find 
some  species  of  haircap  mosses  all  along  the  woodland 
paths,  in  the  upland  pastures,  and  even  in  open  fields. 
They  are  usually  large  enough  so  that  all  their  parts  can 
be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  The  treasure  boxes  of  these 
mosses  are  the  daintiest  imaginable.  Each  stands  firmly 
on  a  long  stem  and  is  securely  fitted  with  a  lid  or  cap,  and 
frequently  veiled  with  hair.  After  the  cap  and  veil  come 
off,  as  they  always  do  when  the  tune  comes  for  the  spores 
to  be  scattered,  one  may  see  a  thin  membrane  stretching 
over  the  top  of  the  box,  much  after  the  fashion  of  a  piece 
of  oiled  paper  on  the  top  of  a  glass  of  jelly.  About  sixty 
little  teeth  hold  the  membrane  securely  in  place  in  damp 
weather.  But  when  the  weather  is  dry  enough  for  the  little 
spores  to  be  trusted  out  in  the  big  world,  the  teeth  draw 
back  sufficiently  to  make  a  ring  of  holes  all  around  the  box. 
Out  of  these  tiny  spaces  the  spores  manage  somehow  to 
escape.  In  certain  kinds  of  mosses  the  teeth  turn  back 
in  dry  seasons,  forming  little  daisy-like  florets. 


WHAT  TO  DO   WITH  AGRICULTURE  iSl 

The  fungi  like  moisture  They  grow  from  spawn  which 
is  supposed  to  be  floating  in  the  atmosphere  in  incalculable 
numbers.  Some  diseases  are  caused  by  fungi,  and  in  the 
form  of  mold,  mildew,  smut,  dry  rot,  rust,  blight,  and  scab, 
they  are  dreaded  by  farmers  and  orchardists.  The  great 
shelf  fungi  that  grow  out  like  brackets  on  the  trunks  of  trees 
are  signs  that  the  tree  is  dying,  for  most  fungi  feed  on  dead 
tissues.  The  fungi  which  we  see  on  the  ground  are  grow- 
ing on  moldering  roots  or  on  buried  wood.  Mushrooms  and 
toadstools  are  fungi.  But  they  are  not  the  whole  plants; 
they  are  the  fruiting  bodies  which  bear  the  spores.  (Have 
children  study  one  of  these  interesting  plants.)  Some  fungi 
are  valuable  in  medicine.  Occasionally  small  fungi  are 
seen  growing  overhead  on  living  twigs  and  leaves.  These 
are  seldom  numerous  enough  to  work  much  harm,  though 
frequently  they  stunt  the  growth  of  their  hapless  host. 

The  Work  of  Earthworms:  In  the  great  economy  of  nature 
all  creatures,  however  lowly,  have  a  work  to  perform.  Lead 
children  to  discover  the  value  of  earthworms  and  the  com- 
mon garden  slugs  or  snails.  In  what  kind  of  soil  do  they 
work?  What  do  they  eat?  Imprison  a  few  earthworms 
in  a  glass  jar  containing  moist  dirt  covered  with  dead  leaves. 
What  do  they  do  with  the  leaves?  Can  the  worms  see, 
hear,  and  smell?  Try  holding  a  lighted  candle  close  to 
the  head  of  a  worm.  See  it  draw  back!  It  cannot  really 
see  for  it  has  no  eyes,  but  the  head  is  in  some  way  able  to 
distinguish  light  and  darkness.  It  is  not  disturbed  by 
any  manner  of  din  about  the  jar.  Worms  cannot  hear  at 
all,  but  they  have  a  very  delicate  sense  of  touch.  Try 
hiding  a  piece  of  cheese  or  some  savory  tidbit  among  the 
leaves  and  see  if  the  worms  find  it. 


182       THE    TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

Worms  breathe  through  their  skins,  which  need  to  be 
kept  moist.  They  eat  their  way  through  the  soil,  consum- 
ing dead  leaves  and  waste  animal  matter  which  they  con- 
vert into  rich  mold.  Their  burrows  penetrate  the  ground 
to  a  depth  of  from  three  to  eight  feet,  letting  in  the  rain 
and  air  and  so  benefiting  the  roots  of  plants.  This  work 
of  the  worms  in  loosening  and  enriching  the  soil  is  of  incal- 
culable value  to  the  farmer. 

LEGUMES 

The  legumes  are  invaluable  in  building  up  the  soil, 
and  they  should  form  the  basis  of  a  number  of  interesting 
lessons.  Have  pupils  make  a  list  of  the  legumes  grown  in 
their  locality.  Examine  the  roots  of  red  clover,  cowpeas, 
alfalfa,  and  beans.  Note  how  the  tubercles  vary  on  the 
different  plants.  Explain  that  tubercles  are  thought  to 
be  rootlets  changed  in  form  by  countless  bacteria.  The 
decay  of  the  tubercles  leaves  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  An 
average  crop  of  peas  or  clover  is  said  to  add  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  nitrogen  to  each  acre  of 
soil.  Compute  the  value  of  this,  at  the  usual  cost 
of  sixteen  cents  per  pound  for  nitrogen  in  commercial 
form. 

Legumes  are  often  spoken  of  as  "lime  plants,"  be- 
cause they  use  so  much  of  that  element.  Will  the  legumes 
grow  in  any  soil?  Discuss  the  kind  of  seed  bed  neces- 
sary. How  may  bacteria  be  supplied?  Procure  two 
flowerpots;  in  one  prepare  a  seed  bed  of  ordinary  field 
soil;  in  the  other  put  soil  from  a  field  where  clover  has 
been  grown.  Sow  crimson  clover  in  each,  and  watch  de- 
velopments. 


WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  AGRICULTURE  183 

References,  Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  278,  Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring. 

No.  315,  Progress  in  Legume  Inoculation. 

No.  318,  Cowpeas. 

No.  339,  Alfalfa. 
Problems: 

1.  What  legumes  are  classed  as  fodder  plants? 

2.  What  legumes  are  used  chiefly  for  pasturage  and  hay? 

3.  What  one  of  the  legumes  is  cultivated  chiefly  for  its  nuts? 

4.  Name  the  legumes  which  produce  seeds  of  a  high  food 

value. 

5.  Show  how  the  legumes  improve  the  soil. 

6.  What  legumes  are  specially  adapted  to  a  thin,  sandy  soil? 

GRASSES 

Peeping,  peeping,  here  and  there, 
In  lawns  and  meadows  everywhere; 
Coming  up  to  find  the  spring, 
And  hear  the  robin  redbreast  sing, 
Creeping  under  children's  feet, 
Glancing  at  the  violets  sweet, 
Growing  into  tiny  bowers, 
For  the  dainty  meadow's  flowers. — 
We  are  small,  but  think  a  minute 
Of  a  world  with  no  grass  in  it.1 

The  grasses  are  by  far  the  most  useful  and  important 
plant  family.  Everywhere  on  meadow,  hill,  and  valley  is 
spread  their  soft,  beautiful  green,  ranging  from  the  low 
bunch  grasses  of  our  lawns  and  orchards  to  the  great  bam- 
boos of  the  tropics.  Our  cereals  —  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
barley,  and  Indian  corn  —  are  simply  cultivated  grasses. 
In  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term,  however,  grass  includes 
only  those  plants  which  are  used  for  pasture  and  hay. 
1  Song  of  the  Grass  Blades. 


184   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Have  pupils  make  a  collection  of  grasses  for  the  school- 
room. Classify  them  into  grasses  of  the  meadow,  the 
hillside,  the  marsh,  and  the  woodland.  Learn  to  know 
the  most  common  grasses.  (Ask  your  state  experiment 
station  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  aid  along 
this  line.) 

Problems,  i.  Do  the  grasses  bear  flowers  and  seed?  Find 
the  tiny  stamens  in  the  chaff-like  scales.  Where  are  the 
pistils?  How  are  the  grasses  fertilized?  Children  find 
specimens  of  the  little  bright  blue-eyed,  yellow,  and  white 
"flowering  grasses,"  which  are  really  not  grasses  at  all,  but 
members  of  the  iris  family  and  classed  among  the  wild  flowers. 

2.  Make  a  study  of  one  of  the  common  grasses.     Timothy 
is  probably  within  reach  of  all.    Note  the  small  bulbous  root, 
the  flowers  growing  on  a  long  spike.     Compare  with  sweet  ver- 
nal grass.     In  the  latter  the  internode  is  very  long,  the  sheaf 
and  leaf  blade  very  short;  it  is  especially  well-adapted  to  wind 
fertilization.     Why?    Timothy   is   sometimes   called   herd's 
grass.     It  was  brought  to  this  country  from  Europe  years 
ago  by  a  man  named  Timothy  Hanson. 

3.  What  are  the  grasses  most  used  for  hay  in  your  locality? 

4.  What  members  of  the  grass  family  are  best  adapted  to 
pastures?    Those  that  spread  by  means  of  rootstocks  or 
underground  stems.     Why?     Kentucky  blue  grass,  buffalo 
grass,  and  Bermuda  grass  are  the  best  examples.     Many 
farmers  prefer  to  soW  pastures  and  hayfields  with  a  mixture 
of  grasses,  because  each  plant  has  different  feeding  habits  and 
requirements  and  so  mixtures  exhaust  the  soil  less  than  one 
variety.     A   favorite    mixture   is   timothy,    orchard   grass, 
redtop  and  clover. 

CORN 
Upon  a  hundred  thousand  plains 

Its  banners  rustle  in  the  breeze, 
O'er  all  the  nation's  wide  domains, 

From  coast  to  coast  betwixt  the  seas. 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  185 

It  storms  the  hills  and  fills  the  vales, 

It  marches  like  an  army  grand, 
The  continent  its  presence  hails, 

Its  beauty  brightens  all  the  land.1 

Study  the  roots  and  prop  roots,  and  how  they  branch  to 
support  the  stalk;  their  fiber  and  toughness. 

Study  the  stem.  How  is  it  made  up?  Are  the  joints 
alike?  Note  the  prominent  lower  nodes,  the  pithy  stalk, 
the  average  height. 

How  are  the  leaves  arranged  on  the  stem?  What  is 
their  use  to  the  plant?  How  do  the  leaves  look  on  a  dry, 
hot  morning?  Discuss  their  value  as  food  for  stock. 

Study  the  flowers:  Note  the  two  kinds  on  each  stalk, 
the  stamens  in  the  stiff,  spreading  tassel;  the  pistils  in  the 
bunches  of  silk  where  the  new  ear  is  to  be.  How  is  corn 
fertilized?  Discuss  the  value,  if  any,  of  cross-fertilization. 
Examine  an  ear  of  corn  in  the  making.  What  is  the  use 
of  the  silk?  Note  that  there  is  a  silk  for  each  kernel.  How 
does  the  pollen  pass  down  these  little  silken  tubes?  Note 
the  arrangement  of  kernels  on  the  cob.  Examine  several 
ears.  Count  the  rows.  Do  ears  of  the  same  variety  of 
corn  have  the  same  number  of  rows? 

Discuss  the  history  of  corn.  It  was  a  native  of  tropical 
America.  Early  explorers  found  it  cultivated  by  the 
Indians.  Columbus  is  said  to  have  carried  it  to  Spain. 
The  United  States  produces  three  fourths  of  the  world's 
corn  crop  —  over  two  and  a  half  billion  bushels  of  grain. 

Cultivation: 

i.  Why  does  corn  need  deep  plowing  before  planting? 
Why  should  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  be  shallow? 

1  Celia  Thaxter:  "Maize  for  the  Nation's  Emblem." 


1 86       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

2 .  What  is  the  average  yield  per  acre  in  your  locality?    Are 
fertilizers  used?    How  may  the  yield  per  acre  be  increased? 

3.  Will  corn  produce  a  crop  on  poor  ground? 

4.  What   elements   does   corn   remove   from   the   soil? 
Humus  and  nitrogen. 

5.  What  is  the  proper  crop  rotation?     Corn  should  follow 
and  precede  crops  which  supply  the  elements  it  requires. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  sow  rye  or  crimson  clover  in  the  fall  on 
land  to  be  planted  in  corn  the  following  season,  and  plow 
under  the  rye  crop  or  clover  stubble. 

6.  What  climatic  conditions  are  best  suited  to  growing 
corn?    Where  is  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States?    Name 
the  two  leading  "corn"  states. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  'listing'  corn?    Name  sections  of 
the  country  where  this  method  of  cultivation  is  practiced. 

8.  Name  diseases  of  the  corn  plant  in  your  section. 

9.  What  insects  are  injurious  to  corn? 

Harvesting:  Many  farmers  desire  to  save  both  the  forage 
and  the  grain;  how  can  this  be  done  most  profitably?  Dis- 
cuss the  value  of  shredded  fodder.  How  is  corn  cared  for 
in  your  community?  Discuss  selection  and  care  of  seed 
corn.  The  right  kind  of  corncribs.  Machinery  used  in 
harvesting  corn  —  corn  binders,  corn  shredders  and  huskers, 
corn  shelters,  etc.  Collect  samples  of  as  many  different 
kinds  of  corn  as  possible.  What  varieties  are  the  most  prof- 
itable to  grow  in  your  community?  Why? 

Uses  of  Corn:  i.  The  grain  constitutes  about  one  half 
the  value  of  the  corn  crop.  The  by-products  are  starch 
and  corn  meal. 

2.  The  leaves  and  husks  besides  their  use  for  fodder  are 
used  in  packing  fruits;  in  stuffing  mattresses,  saddles,  and 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  187 

similar  products;  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  baskets, 
rugs,  and  mats. 

3.  The  stalks  supply  much  of  the  nourishment  of  the 
corn  plant.  They  are  a  valuable  source  of  commercial 
alcohol.  Stalks  from  fifty  bushels  of  grain  will  produce 
about  one  hundred  gallons  of  alcohol.  The  stalk  fiber  is 
used  in  making  paper  and  pasteboard.  Pith  furnishes 
material  for  linoleum  and  the  packing  for  gunboats. 

References:     Corn  booklets  issued  by  the  various  farm  imple- 
ment companies,  and  the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins: 
No.  414,    Corn  Cultivation. 
No.  229,  The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn. 
No.  298,  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products. 
No.  303,  Corn-Harvesting  Machinery. 
No.  313,  Harvesting  and  Storing  Corn. 

WHEAT 

Study  the  plant;  its  leaves  or  blades  and  the  "head," 
made  up  of  many  flowers.  Each  flower  has  three  stamens 
and  one  pistil,  inclosed  in  a  cover,  or  chaff,  so  that  the  seed 
is  self-fertilized. 

Discuss  the  varieties  and  range.  How  was  beardless 
seed  produced?  How  may  new  varieties  be  secured? 
What  is  meant  by  hand  pollination?  How  may  seed  be 
improved? 

Cultivation:  i.  Wheat  requires  a  thoroughly  prepared 
seedbed.  Why? 

(a)  It  is  a  sown  crop,  hence  all  cultivation  must  be 

given  before  seeding. 

(b)  It  is  a  weak-feeding  plant,  and  so  needs  a  soil 

fertile  and  mellow. 


1 88       THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND    THE    COMMUNITY 

(c)  It  needs  a  firm  seed  bed  to  give  the  root  a  firm  hold 
and  secure  capillarity. 

2.  How  may  this  bed  best  be  secured?    Which  is  better, 
to  sow  the  seed  by  hand  or  to  drill  it? 

3.  What  soil  elements  are  required  by  wheat?     (Nitro- 
gen, potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.)     How  may  these  ele- 
ments be  supplied?     Is  lime  beneficial? 

4.  What  is  the  average  wheat  yield  per  acre?    How  may 
it  be  increased? 

5.  What  is  the  place  of  wheat* in  rotation?    Wheat 
should  be  preceded  by  clover,  cowpeas,  or  other  nitrogen- 
collecting,  deep-rooted  crop;  and  followed  again  by  some 
one  of  the  legumes. 

6.  What  insects  are  injurious  to  wheat?     See  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  132,  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat. 

7.  Name  diseases  which  attack  the  wheat  plant. 
Subjects  for  Composition. 

A  Visit  to  a  Big  Wheat  Farm. 

In  a  Flour  Mill. 

From  Seed  to  Loaf. 

A  Wheat  Farm  in  Canada. 

My  Bumper  Wheat  Crop. 

Other  cereals  may  be  studied  by  outline,  if  desired.  Have 
each  pupil  prepare  a  map  of  his  home  farm.  Indicate  the 
crop  that  was  last  grown  in  each  field.  It  possible,  mark 
the  crop  which  will  be  planted  in  each  next  season.  Learn 
to  grade  grain.  Rules  and  instructions  for  this  work  may 
be  obtained  from  the  Railroad  and  Warehouse  Commission, 
Chicago.  Discuss  treatment  of  seed  wheat  and  other 
grains  to  prevent  rust. 

References:    Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos.  67,  324,  and  138. 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  1 89 

SUGAR-PRODUCING  PLANTS 

The  two  great  sugar-producing  crops  in  the  United 
States  are  sugar  beets  in  the  North  and  sugar  cane  in  the 
South.  Sorghum  is  grown  in  latitudes  too  cool  and  too  dry 
for  sugar  cane.  It  is  a  member  of  the  grass  family  whose 
use  is  well-known. 

Sugar  Beets:   Topics  for  Study. 

1.  Where  is  the  home  of  the  sugar  beet  industry? 

2.  When  was  the  industry  introduced  into  our  country? 

3.  What  soil  is  best  suited  for  its  cultivation? 

4.  What  is  the  amount  of  sugar  per  root?     (18  to  25  per 
cent.) 

5.  How  to  increase  the  sugar-producing  quality:    test 
beets,  and  plant  for  seed  those  roots  containing  the  greatest 
amount  of  sugar. 

6.  Cultivation:    What  method  and  what  machinery  are 
used? 

7.  Harvesting  the  crop. 

8.  Yield  per  acre  —  an  acre  of  beets  testing  24  per  cent 
sugar  would  yield  about  42,000  pounds  of  sugar. 

9.  How  beet  sugar  is  made. 

10.  Effect  of  beets  on  soil.     Sugar,  like  cotton,  is  largely 
formed  from  the  carbon  of  the  air,  so  that  if  the  leaves  and 
pulp  are  returned  to  the  fields  or  used  for  stock  feed  and  the 
manure  put  on  the  land,  the  crop  removes  little  fertility 
from  the  soil. 

Sugar  Cane:  Topics  for  Study. 

1 .  Its  membership  in  the  grass  family. 

2.  Where  is  it  cultivated? 

3.  The  "seed."     Sugar  cane  is  reproduced  by  cuttings, 
which  are  pieces  of  stalk  containing  "eyes"  or  buds.     How 


IQO       THE   TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

are  these  planted?    How  many  crops  are  grown  from  one 
planting? 

4.  Cultivation:     What  kind  of  soil  and  seed  bed   are 
necessary?    What  machinery  is  used? 

5.  How  is  the  crop  harvested? 

6.  Products:    sirup,  sugar,  and  molasses. 
Subjects  for  Composition. 

Making  Sorghum  Sirup. 
A  Taffy  PuU  at  Aunt  Mary's. 
A  Visit  to  a  Sugar  Beet  Factory. 
Shall  We  Raise  Sugar  Beets? 
In  the  Cane  Fields  of  the  South. 
How  Cane  Sugar  is  Made. 

THE   ORCHARD 

In  the  agricultural  sections  of  our  country,  the  orchards 
are  often  sadly  neglected.  (Read  and  discuss  Farmers1 
Bulletin  No.  154,  The  Home  Fruit  Garden,  and  Bulletin  No. 
87,  Orchards,  Cover  Crops  and  Cultivation.) 

Learn  how  to  plant  an  apple  tree.  Why  should  we 
trim  the  roots?  Why  the  top?  Is  a  peach  tree  pre- 
pared for  planting  in  the  same  manner  as  an  apple 
tree? 

If  you  plant  the  seed  from  a  big  red  apple,  will  you 
get  a  seedling  which  will  in  tune  produce  an  apple  of  the 
same  kind  and  quality?  Why  do  fruit  seeds  usually 
not  "come  true"?  The  little  seedling  must  be  budded 
and  grafted  from  the  parent  stock.  How  this  is  done 
is  most  interesting.  Perhaps  some  good  orchardist  may  be 
induced  to  give  the  pupils  an  object  lesson  covering  these 
points. 


WHAT  TO  DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  IQI 

Special  Topics: 

Fundamental  principles  of  pruning. 
Object  of  spraying.1 
Making  over  fruit  trees.2 

SPECIAL  SPRING  WORK 

Experiments  with  Plants,     i.  Layering,  cutting,  budding 
and  grafting. 

(a)  Raise  a  strawberry  plant  and  a  grapevine  by 
layering. 

(b)  Raise  a  potato  and  a  geranium  from  cuttings. 
How  many  "  eyes  "  should  a  potato  cutting  have?     Explain 
why  some  leaves  should  be  removed  from  the  geranium 
cutting. 

(c)  Bud  and  graft  some  seedling  apple  trees,  using 
buds  and  scions  from  a  good  variety,  and  following  carefully 
the  instructions  of  your  text,  or  of  some  one  who  is  well 
versed  in  the  work. 

2.  Make  a  study  of  stems. 
I.  Classes: 

1.  Climbing  and  twining  stems. 

(a)  Tendril  climbers  such  as  pea,  morning-glory. 

(b)  Twiners  such  as  hop,  bean. 

2.  Underground  stems. 

(a)  Rootstocks. 

(b)  Tubers. 

(c)  Bulbs. 

1  Apply  to  your  state  experiment  station  for  bulletins  on  spraying;  also 
to  the  chemical  companies  manufacturing  spray  material.   Farmers'  Bulletin 
283,  Spraying  for  Apple  Diseases. 

2  Read  the  chapter  under  this  head  in  Among  Green  Trees,  Rogers.    If 
possible,  cite  instances  where  work  of  this  kind  has  been  done. 


IQ2        THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

3.  Condensed  stems.  The  best  examples  of  these  are  found 
in  desert   regions    where    the    plants    must    necessarily 
expose  as  little  surface  as  possible  to  the  excessive  heat  of 
the  sun  and  the  dry  atmosphere.     See  the  melon  cactus, 
with  its  odd,  turnip-shaped  stem. 

4.  Leaf-like  stems.   Certain  plants  have  stems  which  look 
like  leaves.     The  scales  on  asparagus  shoots  in  spring  are 
reduced  leaves;  but  the  hair-like  structures  which  cover  the 
branches  of  the  plant  later  are  really  tiny  branches  which 
act  as  leaves.     The  leaf-like  branches  of  the  smilax  seem 
to  be  delicate  leaves,  but  on  investigation  they  prove  to 
be  flattened  branches,  each  springing  as  a  small  scale  from 
the  axil  of  the  true  leaf.     The  fleshy  "leaves"  of  some 
varieties  of  cactus  are  really  flattened  stems. 

5.  Stemless  plants  such  as  white  clover,  dandelion,  knot 
grass.     Are  they  really  true  to  name?     Show  how  these 
plants  find  safety  in  hugging  the  ground. 

II.  Modifiability  of  the  Stem.      The  stems  (trunks)  of 
the  tallest  trees  often  reach  more  than  a  hundred  feet; 
•while  those  of  the  "stemless"  plants  are  cut  down  to  a 
fraction  of  an  inch  in  length.    Again  the  stems  may  take 
on  root-like  forms,  as  in  many  grasses  or  sedges,  or  become 
thickened  by  underground  deposits  of  plant  food,  as  in  the 
potato  and  the  iris.     Condensed  forms  of  stem  may  exist 
above  ground,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  branches  may  be  flat 
and  thin  enough  to  resemble  leaves.' 

III.  Structure  of  the  Stem. 

1.  Examine  sections  from  a  year-old  apple  twig.     Note 
the  amount  of  bark,  wood,  and  pith. 

2.  Examine  cherry  sections  of  the  same  age.     Note  the 
corky  layer  of  the  bark,  more  distinct  in  the  cherry  than  in 


WHAT  TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  1 93 

the  apple.  Note  the  rough,  oval-shaped  spots  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  twig  —  these  are  the  lenticels,  through 
which  the  air  penetrates  to  the  interior  of  the  branches. 
Notice  the  green  layer  or  cambium  in  the  cherry  twig. 
Compare  with  that  of  the  apple. 

3.  Examine  cut-off  ends  of  oak,  hickory,  and  other  woods. 
Note  the  holes  which  mark  the  division  between  successive 
rings.     These  holes  indicate  cross  sections  of  the  tubes 
which  served  to  carry  air  and  water  through  the  stem. 
Examine  sections  of  grapevine  several  years  old.     Note 
the  large  size  of  the  ducts.     In  the  billets  of  wood  examined, 
note  the  difference  in  color  between  the  heartwood  and 
the  sapwood.     Note  the  narrow  lines  running  in  very  young 
stems  from  pith  to  bark,  in  older  wood  extending  only  a 
little  of  the  way  from  the  center.     These  are  the  medullary 
rays  which  served  as  channels  for  the  liquid  plant  food. 

4.  Have  pupils  make  a  sketch  of  a  cross  section  of  five- 
year-old  apple,  noting:    the  corky  bark  layer,  the  cam- 
bium, the  masses  of  bast  fibers,  the  medullary  rays,  the 
pith.     Have  them  state  the  use  of  each  part  noted. 

5.  Cut  across  a  stalk  of  growing  corn.     Examine  the 
cut  section.     Note  the  firm  rind,  the  outer  mass  of  pith 
composing  the  main  bulk  of  the  stem,  the  groups  of  wood 
cells,  bast  cells,  and  vessels. 

6.  Compare  the  apple  and  the  corn  as  to  stem  structure. 

7.  Examine    various    green-stemmed    plants.     Annual 
plants  generally  and  the  very  young  shoots  of  shrubs  and 
trees  have  abundant  breathing  pores  in  the  epidermis, 
which  serve  for  the  admission  of  air  and  the  escape  of 
moisture,  while  the  green  layer  of  the  bark  answers  the  same 
purpose  that  is  served  by  the  green  pulp  of  the  leaf. 


194   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Studies  of  roots,  leaves,  and  flowers  may  be  pursued,  if 
time  admits,  following  the  suggestions  of  any  good  text  on 
botany.  Try  these  experiments  with  flowers: 

1.  To  show  cross-fertilization.     Before  the  buds  of  apple 
or  pear  open,  pull  out  the  stamens  with  a  pair  of  tweezers, 
injuring  the  bud  as  little  as  possible  and  leaving  the  blossom 
on  the  tree.     Inclose  the  flower  in  a  paper  bag  and  ex- 
amine it  from  day  to  day.1    When  the  stigma  is  sticky  or 
rough,  carry  pollen  on  a  brush  or  pencil  point  from  flowers 
of  closely  related  species,  and  put  it  on  the  stigma  of  the 
inclosed  blossom.     Again  inclose  the  flower  in  the  bag  to 
keep  other  pollen  from  getting  on  the  stigma.     After  a  few 
days  the  bag  can  be  removed  without  fear  of  other  pollen's 
fertilizing  the  stigma.     Mark  the  stem  so  that  the  fruit 
resulting  from  crossing  may  be  recognized.     A  number  of 
flowers  should  be  so  treated,  for  some  may  fail  to  amount 
to  anything. 

2.  To  show  protection  of  embryos.     Examine  the  fruits 
of  the  pea,  walnut,  mustard,  clover,  and  the  hazelnut. 
Notice  the  tendency  toward  roundness.    Examine  seeds 
of  rye,  oats,  barley,  wheat,  apple,  pear,  lemon,  and  raisin. 
Here  you  find  a  tendency  toward  the  cylindrical,  but 
in  both  cases  there  is  an  avoidance  of  corners  and  edges. 
In  an  examination  of  an  almond,  a  Brazil  nut,  buckwheat, 
peach,  plum  seeds,  we  find  sharp  edges  and  corners,  but  an 
accompanying  hardness  that  fully  protects  the  embryos. 
Do  seeds  in  general  show  a  tendency  toward  dark  colors? 
Secure    caraway,    nutmeg,    pepper,    aniseed.     Of    what 

1  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  each  blossom  so  treated  separately  in- 
closed. If  more  than  one  blossom  is  inclosed,  all  should  have  the  stamens 
removed  to  prevent  flowers  from  pollinating  each  other. 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  IQ5 

benefit  are  their  tastes  and  odors  to  their  inclosed  embryos? 
Can  you  find  seeds  which  have  no  protection  for  their 
embryos? 

TESTING   SEED 

I.  Miscellaneous  Experiments: 

1.  Make  a  seed  tester  of  two  pieces  of  wet  blotting  paper. 
Sow  seed  between  sheets.     Keep  damp  and  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  70°  to  80°  Fahrenheit.     Note  the  time  it  takes  for 
germination,  and  the  per  cent  of  fertility. 

2.  Dip  pieces  of  damp  flannel  in  boiling  water  in  order 
to  destroy  any  mold  spores  that  may  be  on  them.    Lay  one 
piece  on  a  plate.     Sow  the  seed  to  be  tested  on  it,  and  cover 
it  with  the  other  piece  of  flannel  and  another  plate.     Keep 
moist  and  warm,  and  note  the  results  as  before. 

3.  Plant  morning-glory  seeds  in  a  box  of  fine  soil  and 
press  the  soil  down  firmly.     Plant  the  same  number  of 
seeds  in  a  box  of  loose  soil.     Compare  the  results.     What 
rules  may  be  deduced  from  the  experiment? 

4.  Weigh  some  corn  and  beans.     Put  them  in  water  for 
twenty-four  hours  and  again  weigh  them.     What  is  the 
difference  in  weight?    What  idea  does  this  give  as  to  the 
moisture  required  in  the  germination  of  different  seeds? 

5.  Insert  glass  sides  in  a  narrow  wooden  box.     Fill  the 
box  with  moist  soil,  planting  corn  and  beans  close  against 
the  glass  at  different  depths  as  the  earth  is  put  in.     Cover 
the  box  and  keep  in  a  warm  place.     Note  the  progress  of 
germination  daily.     Which  plants  make  their  way  to  the 
surface  from  the  greater  depth,  corn  or  beans,  and  why? 

II.  Experiments  with  Corn: 

i.  Study  the  sand  tray,  and  examine  various  types  of 
corn  tester.    Have  corn  tested  in  at  least  one  of  each. 


196       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

(This  had  best  be  done  at  home,  unless  the  schoolhouse  is 
heated  at  night.) 

2.  Discuss  reasons  for  testing  corn.  Make  a  record  of 
the  corn  tested,  noting  number  of  seed,  date  planted,  date 
sprouted,  per  cent  of  fertility,  What  is  the  value  of 
grading  tested  corn? 

III.  Prove  Rules  for  Germination:  (a)  Seeds  require  a 
certain  amount  of  moisture,  heat,  and  air.  (b)  Seeds  grow 
best  when  the  soil  around  them  is  made  fine  and  compact. 

Mention  seeds  that  require  considerable  warmth  in 
germination;  seeds  that  do  not  need  much  heat.  Explain 
how  plants  of  the  same  family  vary,  mentioning  several 
varieties  of  corn  and  wheat. 

THE   SCHOOL   GARDEN 

What  to  do  with  school  gardens  is  a  problem  each  teacher 
must  solve.  In  the  case  of  older  pupils  it  is  no  doubt  best 
in  most  instances  to  give  school  credits  for  work  done  at 
home.  This  should  include  credit  for  work  done  during 
the  summer  months,  and  should  count  in  the  school 
promotions.  Here  is  a  suggested  score  card: 

1.  Effort  20  per  cent. 

2.  Care  of  garden  and  tools  35  per  cent. 

3.  Record  of  work  done  10  per  cent. 

4.  Value  of  produce  35  per  cent. 
Interest  in  the  work  may  be  promoted: 

i.  By  having  a  judge  well- versed  in  garden  work,  who 
will  visit  the  gardens  from  time  to  time  to  score  the  work 
and  offer  suggestions.  This  may  well  be  some  patron  of 
the  school,  a  grandfather  perhaps,  who  is  willing  to  give  his 
services  for  the  public  good. 


WHAT  TO  DO   WITH  AGRICULTURE  197 

2.  By  offering  various  prizes,  such  as:    for  the  best 
variety  of  vegetables,  for  instance  the  best  bushel  of  potatoes, 
the  finest  collection  of  novelties,  the  best  exhibit  of  melons, 
the  biggest  pumpkin. 

3.  By  keeping  in  mind  the  school  exhibit  which  each 
district  should  endeavor  to  display  at  the  county  fair. 

4.  By  working  for  a  Harvest  Home  to  be  held  at  the 
schoolhouse  some  time  in  October  —  a  regular  gala  day 
in  which  school  exhibits,  picnic  dinner,  sports  of  all  kinds, 
and  general  joy  and  good  cheer  compete  for  first  place. 

5.  By   displaying    seasonable   garden    produce  —  fruit, 
flowers,  and  vegetables  —  in  the  schoolroom.     These  should 
be  fresh  each  morning.     Judges  may  be  appointed  for  the 
day  or  the  week  to  award  ribbons  and  honorary  cards. 
Produce  may  be  used  by  the  cooking  class,  or  a  garden 
exchange  may  be  maintained. 

If  school  gardens  are  attempted,  do  not  allow  the  young 
enthusiasts  to  undertake  too  much.  Remember  even  a 
pigmy  garden  assumes  vast  proportions  when  the  sun  looks 
down  with  ever-increasing  warmth  and  nothing  seems  quite 
so  alluring  as  a  soft  bed  of  grass  in  the  shade.  Uniform 
beds,  about  five  feet  in  width  and  varying  in  length  accord- 
ing to  the  age  of  the  gardeners  —  seven  or  eight  feet  for 
the  smaller  children  and  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  for  the 
older  pupils — are  best.  Allow  a  path  of  two  feet  between 
the  beds,  and  outline  the  whole  with  a  border  of  flowers. 
Each  child  should  be  allowed  to  choose  four  vegetables  for 
his  garden,  and  he  should  be  expected  to  care  for  his  part 
of  the  flower  border.  In  general  it  is  best  to  group  varieties 
so  that  vegetables  which  mature  at  nearly  the  same  time 
shall  be  near  each  other.  These  may  then  be  cleared 


198       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

away  and  other  vegetables  planted  in  their  place  without 
giving  the  garden  a  ragged  appearance.  If  possible  the 
plot  should  be  manured  and  plowed  in  the  fall  before  the 
ground  freezes,  so  that  Nature  may  do  her  part  in  making 
the  soil  friable. 

What  problems  the  small  gardens  present!  Intricacies  of 
practical  measurement,  seed  fertility,  germination,  soil 
conditions,  the  plant  elements  needed,  the  mysteries  of 
leaf,  bud,  and  flower  —  offer  materials  for  scores  of  arith- 
metic, language,  and  nature  study  lessons,  to  say  nothing 
of  encouraging  industry,  self-reliance,  and  neighborly 
rivalry. 

Many  rural  school  grounds  are  not  large  enough  to  make 
gardening  practicable.  But  even  in  the  smallest  grounds 
there  are  the  waste  places  along  the  borders,  the  little  plots 
at  the  sides  of  the  stoop  and  along  the  sunny  side  of  the 
house.  Consider  these.  Take  the  pupils  into  your  con- 
fidence and  spend  some  happy  hours  discussing  and 
planning. 

ARBOR  DAY 

Make  Arbor  Day  the  culmination  of  your  efforts.  Plan 
a  program  and  a  picnic  dinner  and  invite  the  parents. 
Decide  just  where  you  want  trees,  shrubs,  and  flower  beds, 
and  put  a  large  diagram  of  the  plan  on  the  board.  Don't 
scatter  the  ornamentations  about  promiscuously.  Now  is 
the  time  to  inculcate  the  principles  of  landscape  gardening. 
A  tree  or  two  about  the  grounds,  if  shade  is  needed,  and 
possibly  a  flowering  shrub,  or  better  a  climbing  rose  or 
honeysuckle  to  screen  a  bench  or  train  on  a  trellis  sheltering 
the  well;  for  the  rest  keep  to  the  borders  and  the  plot 
suggested  beside  the  porch  and  along  the  side  of  the 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  199 

schoolhouse.  If  there  are  no  screens  in  front  of  the  toilets, 
suggest  rustic  trellises  to  be  covered  with  hop- vines,  honey- 
suckle,, cinnamon  vines,  or  morning-glories. 

Make  a  list  of  the  wants  and  ask  the  children  to  solicit 
at  home.  The  following  are  suggestive:  tools,  nails,  rustic 
poles,  fertilizer,  shrubs,  bulbs,  cuttings,  seeds.  Limit  the 
number  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Vistas  of  graceful  shade, 
grass,  and  a  few  bright  flowers  are  more  delightful  than  a 
wilderness  of  profusion. 

For  the  "stoop"  border  try  nasturtiums  and  pansies. 
In  the  plot  connecting  this  border  and  the  garden  at  the 
side,  plant  petunias,  cuttings  of  scarlet  geranium,  and 
feverfew  or  alyssum.  Against  the  house  plant  a  row  of 
dahlia  bulbs,  next  set  a  row  of  salvia  plants,  then  a  row 
of  geraniums,  and  finish  with  a  border  of  clove  pinks  and 
mignonette.  If  the  schoolhouse  fortunately  boasts  a  porch 
instead  of  the  usual  stoop,  plant  a  Dorothy  Perkins  or  other 
climbing  rose,  and  induce  the  men  to  put  up  a  rustic  railing, 
whereon  a  fern  or  two,  a  porch  box,  or  a  few  potted  plants 
may  be  placed.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  avoid  the  appearance 
of  crowding.  Simplicity  is  the  keynote  of  beauty  and  ele- 
gance in  landscape  gardening. 

Along  the  boundaries,  where  flowers  are  used,  put  tall 
plants  like  asters,  chrysanthemums,  and  cosmos,  in  the 
background.  Verbenas,  candytuft,  and  coleus  make  nice 
edges.  Do  not  neglect  the  old-fashioned  flowers  —  zin- 
nias, marigolds,  snapdragon,  and  sweet  William  —  they 
will  bloom  and  flourish  under  circumstances  adverse  to  the 
more  cultured  beauties. 

A  rose  garden  does  not  require  much  space,  and  it  will 
be  an  increasing  pleasure  as  the  years  go  by.  Plan  to  have 


200   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

a  little  plot,  say  twelve  by  fifteen  feet,  at  one  side  of  the 
grounds.  This  is  large  enough  to  accommodate  twenty 
bushes,  placed  three  feet  apart.  Spade  up  the  ground 
thoroughly,  and  see  that  it  is  plentifully  supplied  with 
sand  and  fine  leaf  mold.  Put  out  nothing  but  monthly 
roses.  If  you  are  not  fortunate  enough  to  have  well-rooted 
bushes  donated,  put  out  strong,  vigorous  cuttings.  Clip 
all  but  the  tiniest  leaves  and  cover  the  plant  with  a  glass 
until  it  is  rooted.  Roses  started  in  May  will  bloom  in  the 
fall.  Aim  to  begin  with  a  variety  of  colors.  Let  the 
children  try  their  hand  at  producing  hybrids. 

SPECIAL  AUTUMN  WORK 

1.  Reasons  for  fall  plowing. 

(a).  Makes  the  soil  more  friable.     How? 
(b).  Destroys  many  harmful  insects  which  winter 
in  the  ground. 

2.  Protection  of  plowed  land. 

In  warm  climates  and  on  light  soils,  fall  plowed  land 
needs  protection  against  washing  and  leaching  rains. 
How  may  this  be  secured?  What  are  the  best  cover 
crops? 

3.  When  to  work  and  why. 

COVER  CROPS 

More  attention  should  be  given  to  cover  crops  every- 
where. They  save  and  increase  plant  food,  supply  humus, 
and  prevent  washing  and  leaching  which  cause  greater  loss 
of  fertility  than  does  cropping.  They  also  keep  the  land 
from  becoming  infested  with  weeds,  and  give  valuable  graz- 
ing to  stock  at  a  time  when  it  is  most  needed. 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  2OI 

Problems:    i.  Show  how  such  crops  are  net  gain. 

2.  What  kinds  of  land  should  never  be  left  bare  in 
winter? 

3.  Discuss  the  kinds  of  cover  crops  —  rye,  oats,  wheat, 
vetch,  crimson  and  bur  clover,  laying  special  stress  on  those 
adapted  to  the  locality. 

4.  Find  out  about  the  "pure  culture"  frequently  supplied 
by  the  state  agricultural  departments.     If  possible,   ex- 
periment with  some  of  it  according  to  directions. 

WEEDS 

One  authority  defines  weeds  as  " plants  out  of  place," 
those  that  persist  in  growing  where  they  are  not  wanted. 
Read  what  your  textbook  has  to  say  about  weeds.  Get 
the  following  Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  28,  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them. 

No.  86,  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants. 

No.  1 88,  Weeds  Used  in  Medicine. 

Make  a  collection  of  weeds  and  weed  seeds.  Two-ounce 
bottles  with  screw  tops  are  best  for  the  latter.  Classify 
them  as  to  common  name;  kind  —  annual,  biennial,  or 
perennial;  their  use  or  harm  to  man.  Note  the  great 
amount  of  seed  produced  by  a  single  plant  —  often  as 
many  as  a  hundred  thousand  seeds  in  one  season.  Study 
their  ways  of  dispersing  seed.  Weeds  are  the  "  tramps  of 
the  vegetable  world,"  and  like  the  up-to-date  tramps  in 
other  walks  of  life,  they  travel  with  all  the  conveniences  of 
the  age  —  by  rail  and  boat,  by  motor  cycle,  automobile,  and 
aeroplane.  Their  seeds  are  often  carried  from  one  land 
to  another  mixed  in  other  seed,  such  as  grass  or  grain,  in 
hay,  in  fleeces  and  hides,  and  other  traded  commodities. 


202   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Make  a  list  of  native  and  foreign  weeds.  Nearly  all  our 
most  troublesome  weeds  have  been  imported  from  Europe. 
Special  Topics: 

Harm  done  by  weeds. 

Weed  control. 

Weed  extermination. 

Birds  that  do  service  as  weed  destroyers. 

INSECTS 

No  more  useful  work  can  be  done  in  the  schools  than  to 
familiarize  the  children  with  entomology.  Apply  to  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  for  free  bulletins.  Get  a  good 
reference  book  on  insects.  Consider  the  relation  existing 
between  the  insect  world  and  the  plant  world;  between 
the  insect  world  and  the  bird  world. 

Problems: 

1.  Compare  a  grasshopper,  a  butterfly,  a  beetle,  and 
a  fly.     In  what  are  they  alike,  in  what  unlike? 

2.  Collect  eggs  from  the  cabbage  butterfly,  together  with 
the  foliage  they  are  found  upon;  watch  the  transformation 
from  egg  to  imago. 

3.  Note  the  movements  of  the  caterpillar's  jaw  from  side 
to  side  when  he  eats.     How  hungry  he  is !     He  feeds  nearly 
all  the  time.     Small  wonder  his  skin  soon  becomes  so  tight 
that  it  bursts,  and  he  is  obliged  to  cast  it  off!     How  many 
times  does  he  molt  before  he  is  full-grown?     Watch  him 
spinning  the  silken  thread  which  slowly  winds  him  into 
a  pupa  or  chrysalis. 

4.  A  chrysalis  formed  in  August  or  September  will  be  a 
butterfly  in  a  few  weeks.     Strive  to  see  the  little  creature 
emerge. 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  203 

5.  Study  the  living  butterfly:  Note  its  long,  slender 
tongue,  coiled  like  a  spring  when  not  in  use.  Provide  a 
few  drops  of  sugar  and  water;  watch  the  tongue  uncoil. 
How  admirably  it  is  built  to  sip  nectar  from  even  the 
narrowest,  longest  flower  tube!  Observe  that  it  is  the  over- 
lapping scales  which  give  the  wings  their  color. 

Have  the  pupils  read  Wordsworth's  poem,  "To  a 
Butterfly."  Have  them  write,  "The  Life  History  of  a 
Butterfly." 

Larvae:  It  is  as  larvae  that  insects  are  most  injurious. 
And  it  is  the  worms  and  caterpillars  from  the  larvae  of 
moths  that  create  the  most  havoc.  Learn  to  know  the 
codling  moth,  the  gypsy  moth,  the  common  clothes  moth, 
the  hawk  or  humming-bird  moth,  and  their  larvae.  Millions 
of  dollars  are  spent  every  year  to  protect  fruit  trees  against 
the  codling  moth.  From  Spain  there  has  been  imported 
a  wasp-like  fly,  called  the  Tachina  fly,  which  is  a  deadly 
enemy  of  the  codling  moth.  This  fly  does  not  kill  the 
moth.  It  lays  its  eggs  on  the  moth's  larvae,  and  the  little 
maggots  which  soon  hatch  proceed  at  once  to  devour  the 
larvae. 

How  to  Distinguish  Butterflies  and  Moths: 

1.  Butterflies  fly  by  day;   moths,  as  a  rule,  fly  only  by 
night. 

2.  Butterflies  have  little  swollen,  club-like  knobs  at  the 
ends  of  the  antennae:    moths  do  not.     (Some  moths  have 
feathered  antennae;  others  have  antennae  in  the  form  of  a 
prism,  with  a  spur  at  the  end.) 

3.  Butterflies  when  at  rest  fold  their  wings  together  in  a 
vertical  position  above  their  bodies;  moths  spread  their 
wings  horizontally. 


204       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

Topics  for  Special  Study:  Beetles,1  Bees,  Bumblebees, 
Wasps  and  Hornets,  the  Garden  Spider  and  his  cousin 
Daddy  Longlegs,  the  Common  Red  Ant,  the  Agricultural 
Ant,  the  Dragon  Fly,  the  Lightning  Bug,  the  Silkworm. 

Insect  Collections  add  much  to  the  value  of  a  school 
exhibit.  The  making  of  such  collections  is  hardly  a  task 
for  miscellaneous  effort,  as  special  care  and  aptitude  are 
essential.  There  may  be  two  or  three  pupils,  however,  who 
would  delight  in  doing  the  work.  Very  little  apparatus  is 
necessary:  a  cyanide  jar  for  the  quick  killing  of  insects, 
a  butterfly  net,  a  cork-lined  collecting  box,  a  breeding  jar, 
mounting  boards,  insect  pins,  a  few  small  cards,  and  some 
sheets  of  cardboard.  Glass  cases  are  necessary  to  protect 
the  specimens  from  the  dust.  Often  an  old  show  case  may 
be  obtained  at  small  cost  and  made  to  serve  the  purpose 
admirably. 

i .  To  make  the  cyanide  jar :  Take  a  good,  wide-mouthed 
fruit  jar,  with  a  tight-fitting  lid,  to  the  druggist.  Have  him 
put  in  four  or  five  pieces  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  the  size 
of  walnuts,  and  cover  them  with  a  layer  of  liquid  plaster  of 
Paris.  When  the  plaster  of  Paris  hardens,  the  jar  is  ready 

1  "There  are  hundreds  of  kinds  of  tiger  and  ground  beetles,  which  devour 
many  cutworms  and  caterpillars.  The  tiger  beetles  are  rather  bright- 
colored  and  active.  They  chase  other  insects,  or  lie  in  wait  for  them.  Many 
of  the  ground  beetles  are  shiny  black,  others  are  marked  in  gay  shades  of 
gold,  green,  and  purple.  They  usually  prowl  after  nightfall,  and  some 
kinds  climb  trees  in  search  of  prey.  The  tumblebug  and  the  ladybird  belong 
to  the  beetle  tribe.  The  latter  is  a  special  friend  of  man,  since  both 
the  larva  and  the  imago  feed  upon  the  eggs,  larvae,  and  imagoes  of 
destructive  insects.  The  tumblebug  rolls  its  egg  in  a  ball  of  moist  earth. 
We  often  see  them  trundling  their  treasure.  The  male  beetle  pushes  and 
the  female  pulls,  the  forelegs  being  differently  developed  for  the  purpose. 
Spy  upon  a  pair  and  watch  them  bury  their  treasure!  The  larva  feeds 
upon  the  contents  of  the  ball." 


WHAT   TO   DO   WITH   AGRICULTURE  2O$ 

for  use.  Insects  whose  wings  might  be  injured  in  the 
jar  may  be  slipped  into  an  air-tight  box  and  killed  with 
chloroform  or  ether.  Beetles  and  larvae  may  be  killed 
in  alcohol. 

2.  A  butterfly  net  is  easily  made  by  fastening  a  handle  to 
a  small  hoop  and  gathering  to  the  hoop  a  bag  made  of 
cheesecloth. 

3.  The  breeding  jar  is  a  wide-mouthed  jar,  with  a  few 
inches  of  damp  sand  at  the  bottom,  and  a  cheesecloth  cover. 
Keep  the  insects  in  it  supplied  with  fresh  food  of  the  kind 
on  which  they  were  found  feeding.     Cocoons  should  be 
kept  in  a  cool  place  while  developing.     Galls  may  be 
collected  in  the  spring  and  fall,  and  kept  till  the  flies  appear. 

4.  Mounting  board,  insect  pins,  and  similar  needs  may 
be  obtained  from  any  standard  school  supply  house. 

Insect  collecting  is  seasonable  both  in  summer  and 
winter,  day  and  night.  In  winter,  insects  may  be  found 
beneath  the  bark  of  trees  or  in  moss,  and  the  pupae  may  be 
collected  from  trees  and  fences,  under  old  boards  and 
rocks,  or  buried  a  few  inches  in  the  ground.  In  summer, 
insects  may  be  collected  in  all  stages  and  conditions.  One 
learns  the  most  perhaps  from  the  caterpillars,  which  may  be 
fed  and  watched  through  all  the  changes  of  their  metamor- 
phosis. Many  valuable  specimens  among  the  moths,  bee- 
tles, and  other  night  flyers  may  be  attracted  by  a  lamp  set 
in  an  open  window. 

If  possible,  the  male  and  female  and  the  chrysalis  of  an 
insect  should  be  grouped  together  on  a  card.  Their  name 
and  the  date  of  capture  is  sufficient  label;  but  the  helpful, 
ambitious  entomologist  will  enter  in  a  blank  book  provided 
for  that  purpose,  short  concise  notes  of  information  about 


206   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

each  insect  as  it  is  added  to  the  collection.  Write  to  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  information  on  mounting  specimens,  and  for  helpful 
leaflets,  and  suggestions  for  school  use. 

REFERENCES  FOR  FARM  aND  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 

Buffum  and  Deaver,  Sixty  Lessons  in  Agriculture. 
Coulter,  John  G.,  Plant  Life  and  Plant  Uses. 
Hunter,  G.  W.,  Essentials  of  Biology. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
HOME  SCIENCE 

Many  teachers  approach  the  study  of  home  economics 
with  a  feeling  much  akin  to  that  manifested  by  a  nervous, 
high-strung  horse  when  it  sees  a  sheet  of  paper  by  the  road- 
side. It  is  a  gruesome,  fearful  thing,  covering  innumer- 
able pitfalls  and  vexations,  and  invented  solely  for  their 
own  undoing.  But  is  this  really  true?  Let  us  see.  Life 
for  most  of  us  is  a  workaday  existence,  either  in  or  out  of 
the  home,  year  in  and  year  out.  Whether  we  get  pleasure 
out  of  our  work  as  we  go  along,  and  find  time  for  the 
enjoyment  of  our  hobbies,  will  depend  to  a  great  extent 
upon  our  attitude  toward  our  task,  and  the  speed  with 
which  we  turn  off  the  work  itself.  Studying  the  ordinary 
school  subjects  will  not  produce  this  desirable  philosophy 
and  skill.  Such  can  be  acquired  only  by  careful  attention 
to  the  principles  of  home  economics  —  which  is  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  a  study  of  everyday  living  and  the 
common-sense  methods  which  go  to  make  that  living 
enjoyable.  Home  economics  is  the  final  connecting  link 
between  the  school  and  the  home.  It  is  a  study  not  too 
difficult  to  find  a  place  in  the  simplest  curriculum. 

School  Credits  for  Home  Work.  Begin  the  work  in  home 
science  by  recognizing  the  importance  of  the  boys'  and  girls' 
home  duties.  Possibly  you  have  thoughtlessly  been  cen- 
suring Mary  Jones  for  her  rough  hands,  her  hastily  brushed 
hair,  or  her  numerous  cases  of  tardiness,  while  at  the  same 

207 


208   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

time  you  have  commended  Nellie  Blake  as  a  model  of 
excellence.  Do  you  know  that  Mary  has  an  invalid 
mother  and  a  younger  brother  and  sister  who  require  a  great 
deal  of  care?  Do  you  know  that  Mary  rises  at  an  early 
hour,  helps  the  younger  children  to  dress,  prepares  break- 
fast, washes  the  dishes,  and  puts  the  house  in  order  before 
coming  to  school?  Often  she  has  barely  five  minutes  for 
her  own  toilet  and  runs  nearly  all  the  way  to  the  schoolhouse 
to  avoid  being  reprimanded  for  tardiness.  She  is  out  of 
breath,  tired  and  nervous,  and  there  is  an  odd  feeling  of 
resentment  in  her  heart  when  she  hears  Nellie  commended 
for  doing  nothing!  Nellie  had  only  to  get  ready,  eat  her 
breakfast,  and  walk  leisurely  to  school;  she  doesn't  do  any- 
thing at  noon;  and  in  the  evening  there  is  no  supper  to  get, 
no  dishes  to  wash,  no  children  to  amuse  and  put  to  bed. 
She  is  quite  free  to  study  her  lessons  and  her  mother  and 
older  sister  are  ready  and  willing  to  assist  if  she  needs  help. 
Why  shouldn't  Nellie  Blake  be  neat  and  cheerful,  with 
perfect  lessons  and  no  tardy  marks?  Why,  indeed!  But 
there  are  tears  of  bitterness  in  Mary's  heart;  she  strives 
not  to  care  when  you  say  severely:  "You  are  fifteen  min- 
utes late  this  morning,  Mary.  You  seem  to  be  getting 
worse  instead  of  better!" 

Often  the  hours  spent  outside  of  the  schoolroom  are  of 
more  importance  in  the  development  of  boys  and  girls  into 
capable  men  and  women  than  the  hours  spent  within. 
When  Mary  Jones  acquires  a  home  of  her  own,  there  will 
be  no  futile  tears  over  hopeless  household  tasks  she  has 
never  learned  to  do;  unless  perchance  she  comes  to  regard 
housekeeping  as  so  much  drudgery,  and  falls  into  the  habit 
of  doing  things  in  a  careless,  slipshod  manner.  By  linking 


HOME    SCIENCE  2OQ 

the  school  and  home,  and  thereby  raising  the  dignity  of 
the  homely  humdrum  tasks,  Mary's  whole  life  may  be 
made  incomparably  happier  and  richer;  so,  too,  might  the 
lives  of  countless  boys  and  girls  be  lifted  and  broadened. 
Such  a  step  would  also  be  found  very  conducive  to  self- 
government;  for  it  is  everywhere  conceded  that  the  boys 
and  girls  who  have  an  interest  and  a  responsibility  in  the 
affairs  of  the  home  are  the  better  for  it.  If  the  school 
considers  a  careful,  cheerful  performance  of  little  home 
duties  of  as  much  importance  as  the  preparation  of  lessons, 
a  spirit  of  friendly  rivalry  will  soon  be  started.  Each  boy 
and  girl  will  be  curious  to  know  just  how  much  of  the  work 
about  the  home  their  schoolmates  are  doing,  and  no  one 
will  desire  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  shirker.  Many  will  fairly 
insist  on  being  assigned  certain  tasks  at  home;  and  the 
parents,  when  once  they  have  recovered  from  the  sur- 
prise, will  rise  up  and  call  the  teacher  blessed. 

School  credits  for  home  tasks  prove  a  solid  foundation 
for  whatever  additional  work  the  teacher  may  care  to  out- 
line in  home  economics. 

Extra  credits  may  be  offered  for  cheerfulness,  kindness, 
politeness,  courtesy  to  parents  and  friends,  kindness  to 
animals,  doing  things  before  being  told,  care  of  clothes,  and 
table'manners.  Cards  may  be  prepared  by  the  children,  and 
the  parents  urged  to  give  careful  attention  to  the  marking. 
Home  tasks  may  compass  from  50  to  75  per  cent  of  the  work 
done  in  economics.  As  a  further  stimulant  to  effort,  the 
school  board  or  interested  individuals  may  be  induced  to 
give  certain  prizes  to  those  averaging  above  90  per  cent. 

The  Hot  School  Lunch.  Many  progressive  teachers 
are  insisting  upon  and  providing  for  a  hot  lunch  in  the 


210       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

one-room  rural  schools.  In  its  wake  have  followed  increased 
attendance  and  decided  gain  in  scholarship  and  deport- 
ment. "I  have  found  that  in  country  schools  where  the 
hot-lunch  system  has  been  introduced  the  pupils  do  twice 
as  much  work  in  the  afternoon  as  when  they  were  eating 
cold  lunches,"  says  the  head  of  the  rural  school  department 
of  a  Washington  State  Normal  School.  The  statement 
is  readily  believed,  if  we  consider  the  evidence  of  our  fore- 
most food  experts.  Often  children  hurry  away  to  school 
after  a  mouthful  or  two  of  breakfast;  at  noon,  under  the 
old  plan,  they  bolt  their  food  and  hustle  out  to  play. 
Small  wonder  that  they  have  little  energy  for  the  after- 
noon tasks!  It  is  not  surprising  that  when  hot  food  is 
supplied  to  stimulate  the  digestive  juices,  and  time  is 
taken  to  chew  and  enjoy  the  food,  increased  efficiency 
should  result. 

But  how  can  a  hot  lunch  be  prepared  in  a  one-room 
schoolhouse  where  there  are  no  conveniences,  no  equip- 
ment of  any  sort?  Begin  simply.  Try  adding  a  cup  of  hot 
cocoa  or  a  bowl  of  soup  to  the  child's  lunch  as  brought  from 
home.  It  turns  the  light  repast  into  a  feast!  And  it  does 
not  take  much  time,—  a  few  minutes  before  school  occa- 
sionally, a  little  time  at  recess,  and  at  noon  the  finishing 
touches.  The  children  will  gladly  bring  such  dishes  as  are 
needed.  In  winter,  the  heater  may  serve  as  a  cookstove; 
in  summer,  a  few  minutes  over  an  alcohol  burner,  then 
finishing  with  a  fireless  cooker  will  accomplish  the  work. 
A  very  suitable  little  alcohol  "stove"  may  be  purchased 
for  fifty  cents,  and  a  fireless  cooker  is  easily  made. l  The 

1See  Experiment  Station  Circular  No.  776,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, on  Home  Demonstration  Work. 


HOME    SCIENCE  21 1 

boys  will  enjoy  making  a  cupboard  for  the  dishes.  "Many 
hands  make  light  work,"  and  the  task  of  dish  washing  is 
soon  finished.  The  teacher  should  see  that  this  is  done 
correctly;  the  dishes  properly  scraped  and  piled;  the  silver 
washed,  rinsed,  and  wiped;  the  dishes  scalded  and  left  to 
drain  dry;  the  dish  mop  thoroughly  cleaned  and  hung  to 
sun  and  air. 

Besides  the  host  of  tempting  nourishing  soups,  one  may 
serve  a  variety  of  other  dishes,  simple  and  delicious.  Try 
mush  and  milk;  rice  with  raisins,  milk,  and  sugar;  potato 
chowder;  oatmeal  or  wheat  meal  with  milk  and  sugar; 
tapioca  pudding;  hot  apple  sauce  or  stewed  dried  fruits. 
No  great  amount  of  culinary  skill  is  needed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  these  dishes.  Almost  any  cookbook  will  furnish 
the  necessary  directions.  In  making  soup,  be  careful  to 
cook  the  ingredients  a  long  time  at  a  simmering  point,  so 
that  every  bit  of  essence  will  be  extracted.  If  milk  is  to 
be  used,  add  scalding  hot  and  serve  at  once.  Long  cook- 
ing is  necessary  to  bring  out  the  flavor  of  mushes  and  por- 
ridges. They  should  be  made  before  school  and  placed  in 
the  tireless  cooker. 

A  recent  writer  in  an  educational  journal  tells  how  one 
practical  little  school  teacher  in  Iowa,  a  few  days  after  the 
heating  and  ventilating  system  was  installed,  cooked  eggs 
in  the  humidifier  with  great  success.  Then  she  saw  no 
reason  why  she  couldn't  cook  food  on  top  of  the  stove  as 
well  as  in  the  humidifier.  Noticing  also  the  intense  heat 
at  the  fuel  door,  she  conceived  the  bright  idea  of  baking 
potatoes  on  the  little  shelf  between  the  outside  door  and  the 
inner  stove.  This  little  shelf  is  really  an  oven,  and  po- 
tatoes, apples,  and  other  foods  can  be  baked  there. 


212        THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

In  a  certain  rural  district  in  northeastern  Missouri, 
there  is  an  ideal  kitchen  and  dining  room  in  the  basement. 
In  the  beginning  this  school  was  just  like  any  one  of  our 
50,000  corn-belt  schoolhouses.  It  was  simply  one  room, 
with  the  plaster  off  in  many  places,  a  stove  in  the  center, 
and  around  the  wall  a  blackboard  which  was  entirely  too 
high  for  the  little  tots.  The  outbuildings  were  without 
doors;  tramps  had  made  away  with  several  of  the  shutters, 
and  broken  numerous  panes  of  glass.  The  district  was 
composed  of  ''progressives"  and  "standpatters,"  and  torn 
by  petty  disagreements  over  little  nothings.  Then  an 
enthusiastic  teacher  arrived  on  the  scene,  and  doors, 
screens,  paint,  and  plaster  appeared  where  needed.  The 
playground  became  a  most  interesting  place.  A  tall  flag- 
pole went  up  in  front  of  the  building,  and  on  a  certain 
appointed  day  the  people  gathered  under  the  cheery  flag. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  men  of  the  neighborhood  assembled 
to  dig  out  the  basement,  haul  sand  and  cement,  and  put  in 
concrete  floor  and  walls.  The  district  put  in  a  furnace. 
Later  an  oil  stove,  sink,  drinking  fountain,  and  pressure 
tank  were  added.  The  men  built  tables  which  were  easily 
put  out  of  the  way  when  not  in  use,  and  there  were  cup- 
boards which  the  women  took  delight  in  furnishing  with 
china  and  utensils.  At  first,  the  kitchen  and  dining  room 
were  used  only  for  neighborhood  affairs,  but  soon  a  cooking 
class  was  established,  and  it  was  not  long  until  the  school 
began  giving  delightful  little  luncheons,  suppers,  and  even 
formal  dinners.  Now  six  acres  of  land  are  leased  from  an 
adjoining  farm,  a  wonderful  school  garden  furnishes  interest 
and  inspiration  to  the  whole  county,  and  a  goodly  part  of 
the  produce  grown  is  utilized  right  in  the  school  kitchen. 


\  HOME    SCIENCE  213 

In  another  country  school,  the  energetic  patrons  painted 
the  smoke-grimed  walls  and  ceiling,  hung  neat  curtains  at 
the  windows,  provided  improved  chairs  and  seventy-two 
feet  of  fine  pulp  blackboard.  When  the  teacher  demon- 
strated the  value  and  need  of  hot  lunches,  the  parents 
provided  a  two-burner  blue-flame  oil  stove  and  the  neces- 
sary utensils.  The  little  five-by-nine  entry  became  the 
kitchen,  and  there  the  first  cooking  was  done.  In  more 
than  a  year  there  have  been  few  days  when  the  pupils 
have  not  prepared  at  least  one  warm  dish  for  lunch.  Jelly 
and  preserves  were  made  and  sold,  and  funds  secured  in 
other  ways;  to-day  a  neat  kitchen  12  by  14  feet  adjoins  the 
main  building.  One  end  of  this  room  is  fitted  with  work- 
table,  cupboards,  and  oil  stove;  the  other  has  a  work- 
bench and  tools  for  manual  training.  Here  the  girls  cook 
and  the  boys  do  repair  and  construction  work  for  the 
schoolroom  and  the  neighborhood  generally.  They  are 
privileged  to  use  the  room  when  lessons  are  finished,  and 
thus  time  which  otherwise  might  be  spent  in  mischief  passes 
quickly  and  happily.  In  this  school,  as  in  countless  others, 
materials  are  brought  from  home. 

So  much  for  difficulties  that  have  been  overcome.  Each 
teacher  must  work  out  her  own  problem,  remembering  that 
" where  there's  a  will,  there's  a  way."  In  planning  her 
menus  she  will  do  well  to  keep  in  mind  the  teacher's  slogan 
—  timeliness.  Farm  wives  will  cheerfully  hand  out  meat 
and  vegetables  in  season;  but  don't  ask  for  fresh  beef  in 
June,  or  for  celery  and  lettuce  in  winter.  Keep  in  mind 
the  activities  of  the  farm  —  when  eggs  are  most  plentiful, 
what  time  of  year  the  fatted  calf  and  the  pigs  are  likely  to 
be  killed,  what  vegetables  are  in  season.  Above  all  be 


214        THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

prepared  for  emergencies.  Very  probably  on  the  day 
when  you  have  planned  to  have  meat  loaf  with  tomato 
sauce,  there  will  be  nothing  forthcoming  but  the  tomatoes; 
or  possibly  instead  of  meat,  eggs  will  be  cheerfully  produced. 
If  you  fail  to  rise  gracefully  to  the  occasion,  you  will  miss 
a  golden  opportunity;  housekeeping  is  made  up  of  just 
such  little  unforeseen  difficulties.  Often  considerable 
management  and  tact  are  necessary  to  keep  the  difficulties 
from  becoming  real  vexations.  Don't  miss  the  chance  for 
an  object  lesson  worth  while!  And  really  the  instance 
cited  is  no  problem  at  all  —  if  you  know  what  to  do.  To- 
matoes are  the  most  versatile  of  vegetables.  They  can  be 
juggled  into  all  sorts  of  interesting  dishes  —  from  soup  to 
fritters,  toast,  and  tomato  loaf.  Combined  with  eggs,  or 
a  relish  of  bacon,  or  bacon  gravy,  they  are  food  for  the  gods. 
Get  out  your  cookbook,  or  confer  with  some  good  house- 
wife; it  is  more  fascinating  than  poring  over  the  latest  novel, 
providing  you  are  in  the  spirit.  It  is  a  good  plan  sometimes 
to  allow  the  girls  to  prepare  dishes  they  have  learned  to 
make  at  home.  If  these  can  be  arranged  in  the  nature  of  a 
surprise  to  you  and  to  the  school,  so  much  the  better. 

FOOD   VALUES 

Supplement  the  cooking  lessons  with  a  few  minutes'  study 
of  food  values  each  day,  in  which  the  whole  school  may 
participate.  A  good  advanced  text  in  physiology  should 
be  procured  for  reference.1 

1  The  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  provides  valuable 
pamphlets  on  the  subject:  See  Experiment  Stations  Circular  No.  4,  Food 
Nutrients  and  Food  Economy;  Circular  No.  46,  The  Functions  and  Uses 
of  Food;  Experiment  Stations  Bulletin  No.  28,  The  Chemical  Composition 
of  American  Food  Materials;  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142,  Principles  of 
Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 


HOME    SCIENCE  21$ 

1.  What  food  is. 

2.  The  use  of  food. 

(a)  To  build  up  tissue  waste. 

(b)  To  be  burned  for  the  production  of  energy. 

3.  Classification  of  food. 

(a)  Proteids  —  meats,    bread,    corn,    peas,    eggs,    fish, 

milk.     Useful  for  tissue  building. 

(b)  Carbohydrates  —  made  up  chiefly  of  sugar  or  starch, 

such  as  potatoes,   rice,   etc.     Useful  for  energy 
making. 

(c)  Fats  —  such   as   butter,    fat  meat,   cream.     Useful 

for  making  body  heat. 

(d)  Water  and  salt. 

(e)  Other  mineral  substances. 

4.  Quantity  and  proportion  of  foods  in  diet. 

5.  The  need  for  a  balanced  ration. 

(a)  Make  a  diet  table. 

(b)  Prepare  a  series  of  menus  which  shall  comply  with 

this  table. 

6.  Difference  between  animal  and  vegetable  food. 
Problems: 

1.  Give  a  definition  of  food  and  name  the  substances 
used  as  food. 

2.  Can  a  man  subsist  upon  proteids  alone?     Why  not? 

3.  Show  why  an  abundance  of  water  is  needed  in  food. 

4.  Are  condiments  and  beverages  properly  classed  as  food? 

5.  Show  why  salt  is  the  only  mineral  which  man  adds  to 
his  food. 

6.  How  can  we  tell  how  much  food  we  need? 

7.  Give  the  four  points  which  determine  the  digestibility 
and  value  of  a  food. 


2l6       THE    TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

8.  What  is  the  result  if  too  much  sugar  or  starch  is  eaten? 

9.  What  is  the  value  of  indigestible  matter  in  food? 
10.  What  is  the  value  of  sugar  as  a  food?1 

Experiments  with  Food: 

1.  To  demonstrate  the  amount  of  water  in  food. 

(a)  Weigh  a  piece  of  fresh  beef.     Set  aside  in  a  warm, 
dry  place  for  twenty-four  hours.    Weigh  again.     To  what 
is  the  loss  of  weight  due? 

(b)  Pare  an  apple  or  a  potato.     Weigh  the  fruit  and  allow 
it  to  dry.     Note  loss  of  water  from  day  to  day. 

2.  To  show  the  presence  of  starch. 

(a)  By  the  familiar  iodine  test. 

(b)  Grate  a  potato  into  a  glass  of  water.     Note  the 
white  powdery  substance  —  the  starch,  which  collects  at 
the  bottom  of  the  glass. 

3.  To  show  the  presence  of  fat. 

(a)  Rub  some  flaxseed  meal  upon  paper.  Note  the  result. 

(b)  Shake  a  small  piece  of  butter  or  a  little  sweet  oil 
with  ether.     What  happens?     Filter,  and  allow  the  ether 
to  evaporate. 

4.  To  show  grain  albumin,  or  gluten. 

Mix  a  small  mass  of  wheat  flour  dough  and  gently  wash 
out  the  starch  by  kneading  it  under  water.  The  gluten 
will  be  left  as  a  stringy,  sticky  mass. 

5.  To  show  the  amount  of  food  required  daily. 

(a)  Weigh  out  the  different  amounts  of  bread,  eggs, 
meat,  milk,  and  butter  which  are  required  daily.     Also 
measure  out  a  quart  of  water. 

(b)  Weigh  out  the  required  quantities  of  fat,  sugar,  and 
albumin.     The  last-named  may  be  represented  by  gelatine. 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  535,  Sugar  and  Its  Value  as  Food. 


HOME    SCIENCE  217 

SPECIAL   SUBJECTS 

Milk:1 

1.  Its  composition  and  food  value. 

2.  Its  nutritive  value  as  compared  with  other  foods. 

3.  Necessity  for  keeping  milk  covered. 

4.  Pasteurization. 

5.  Making  condensed  milk. 

6.  Butter  and  its  imitations. 

7.  Testing  milk. 
Problems: 

1.  Show  that  milk  is  a  perfect  food.     How  may  it  be 
used  to  the  best  advantage?     How  may  the  diseases  whose 
germs  it  is  prone  to  contain  be  avoided? 

2.  Show  how  to  distinguish  good  milk  from  poor,  and 
describe  two  methods  for  testing  it. 

3.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  dairy  cow? 

4.  Name  the  essential  factors  in  good  butter  making. 
Cheese:1 

1.  Its  composition  and  food  value. 

2.  Cheese  making.     (A  visit  to  a  cheese  factory.) 

3.  Familiar  kinds  of  cheese. 

4.  Its  use  as  a  meat  substitute. 

5.  Cheese  dishes  for  the  schoolroom. 

(a)  Scrambled  eggs  with  cheese. 

(b)  Macaroni  and  cheese. 

(c)  Cottage  cheese. 

(d)  Cheese  fondue. 

(e)  Welsh  rarebit. 

Problem:   Make  cheese  by  using  rennet. 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  42,  55,  63,  74,  106,  241,  287,  363,  413. 

2  See  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  166  and  487. 


2l8        THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

Eggs:1 

1.  Composition  and  food  value. 

2.  Nutritive  value  as  compared  with  other  foods  and  as 
a  meat  substitute. 

3.  Preserving  eggs. 

4.  Testing  eggs. 

(a)  Fresh  and  stale  eggs. 

(b)  Incubation. 
Meat:2 

1.  Its  composition  and  food  value. 

2.  Place  in  the  diet. 

3.  Meat  from  the  different  animals. 

(a)  Beef. 

(b)  Pork. 

(c)  Mutton. 

(d)  Chicken. 

(e)  Wild  game. 

4.  Different   cuts   of    meat,    their    cost    and  nutritive 
value. 

5.  How  to  know  good  meat. 

6.  Using  the  cheaper  cuts. 

7.  Best  method  of  cooking  meat. 

8.  Soup  stock. 

9.  Left-overs  and  combinations. 

10.  Care  of  meat. 
Problems : 

1.  Show  how  meat  ranks  as  a  food.     In  what  is  it  de 
ficient? 

2.  Compare  fresh,  preserved,  and  decayed  meat. 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128,  Eggs  and  their  Uses  as  Food. 

2  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  391,  Economical  Use  of  Meat  in  the  Home. 


HOME    SCIENCE  21 Q 

3.  What  diseases  may  be  transmitted  by  meat?     How 
are  they  avoided? 

4.  Show  how  to  select  good  meat  in  the  market. 

5.  How  do  fish  and  shellfish  resemble  meat? 

6.  How  is  beef  tea  made?     Compare  its  food  value  with 
that  of  meat. 

Substitutes  for  Meat: 

Not  many  years  ago  meat  was  considered  a  necessity  in 
every  home.  Now  we  are  coming  to  see  that  other  foods 
besides  meat  can  be  made  to  serve  in  building  up  our 
body  tissue,  at  a  cost  much  less  than  that  of  meat.  Many 
of  these  cheaper  foods  have  the  added  advantage  of 
leaving  no  waste  substances  in  the  body,  hence  they  are 
not  such  a  severe  tax  on  the  bodily  organs.  "  Enough  with- 
out waste  "--this  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  economy, 
and  it  is  the  rock  on  which  the  foundation  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics is  builded.  We  must  provide  what  food  our  bodies 
need  to  enable  the  organs  to  carry  on  their  proper  func- 
tions, and  to  keep  the  body  in  repair,  and  we  must  do 
this  as  cheaply  as  possible,  hence  the  value  of  meat  sub- 
stitutes. 

Macaroni,  spaghetti,  vermicelli,  and  noodles  contain  so 
much  starch  and  flesh-building  material  that  they  are 
equal  to  meat  as  a  food  if  combined  with  cheese,  and  when 
plenty  of  rich,  well-seasoned  sauce  is  added  they  are  most 
palatable.  If  brown  gravy  is  desired,  add  a  few  drops 
of  caramel  coloring  made  by  browning  sugar  and  dissolving 
it  in  a  little  water.  Many  people  prefer  tomato  sauce 
instead  of  white  sauce  with  these  dishes. 

Beans  and  peas  contain  about  twenty-five  per  cent 
of  albumin,  and  are  therefore  very  good  meat  substitutes, 


220   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

especially  for  an  outdoor  laborer  who  has  need  of  a  great 
deal  of  energy.1 

Fish  contains  about  sixteen  per  cent  of  albumin  and 
six  per  cent  of  fat.  It  is  not  so  easily  digested  as  meat,  but 
it  can  take  the  place  of  meat  as  food.2  Formerly  it  was 
thought  that  fish  was  especially  nourishing  for  the  brain, 
but  the  brain  is  nourished  by  the  same  substances  as  the 
rest  of  the  body,  hence  fish  is  hardly  so  good  for  it  as  beef- 
steak. 

Review  what  has  been  learned  about  eggs,  cheese,  and 
milk  as  meat  substitutes.     Are  eggs  a  complete  food  for 
man?     Why  is  milk  called  the  most  perfect  of  foods?     Can 
a  grown  person  live  on  milk  alone? 
Meat  Substitute  Dishes  for  the  Schoolroom: 

1.  Macaroni  and  cheese. 

2.  Vermicelli  soup. 

3.  Spaghetti,    tomato    sauce,    and    cheese.     (Moisten 
sufficient  boiled  spaghetti  with  the  sauce,  add  alternate 
layers  of  cheese  and  buttered  crumbs,  and  bake  twenty 
minutes.) 

4.  Baked  beans. 

5.  Cream  of  pea  soup. 

6.  Creamed  peas  and  tomatoes. 

7.  Eggs  in  various  forms. 

8.  Fresh  fish.     (See  suggestions  in  note  below.) 

9.  Scalloped  oysters,  fried  oysters. 
10.  Baked  salmon,  salmon  patties. 


1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  121,  Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Legumes  as 
Food. 

2  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  85,  Fish  as  Food,  and  Economic  Circular 
No.  ii,  Canned  Salmon  Cheaper  than  Meats. 


HOME    SCIENCE  221 

Vegetables:1 

1.  Special  use  of  vegetable  food. 

2.  Why  vegetables  are  cooked. 

3.  The  value  of  green  vegetables. 

4.  Methods  of  cooking  vegetables. 

(a)  Steaming.  (d)  Frying. 

(b)  Casserole  cooking.  (e)   Sauteing. 

(c)  Baking.  (f)    Escalloping. 

(g)  "Au  gratin"  dishes. 
Vegetable  Dishes  for  the  Schoolroom: 

Baked  potatoes.  Creamed  cabbage. 

Potatoes  au  gratin.  Mashed  turnips. 

Saratoga  potatoes.  Asparagus  or  Swiss  chard. 

Fried  potatoes.  Creamed  spinach. 

Candied  sweet  potatoes.          Cauliflower  au  gratin. 

Creamed  carrots.  Fried  parsnips. 

String  beans.  Fresh  peas. 

Bean  chowder.  Escalloped  corn. 

Onion  chowder.  Tomatoes,  any  style. 

Many  vegetables  contain  all  the  substances  which  we 
need  for  both  repair  and  energy,  so  that  man  can  live 
in  good  health  upon  a  strictly  vegetable  diet.  This  he 
could  not  do  on  lean  meat,  and  would  find  very  difficult 
upon  milk.  The  most  nutritious  vegetable  foods  are  the 
cereals  or  grains,  and  such  leguminous  seeds  as  peas  and 
beans.  These  contain  much  proteid  for  tissue  building 
and  much  carbohydrate  for  energy  formation,  also  min- 
eral salts. 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  256,  Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  the  Table; 
University  of  Missouri,  Extension  Service,  Circular  i,  Jan.,  1915,  Cooking 
of  Vegetables. 


222        THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

Many  of  the  vegetables  are  to  the  human  body  as  hay 
and  fodder  are  to  the  horse  —  bulk  feed.  They  contain 
some  starch  and  sugar,  and  much  fibrous  substance  wholly 
indigestible.  Their  agreeable  taste  aids  in  promoting  the 
flow  of  the  digestive  fluids,  and  their  bulk  excites  the 
peristalsis  of  the  intestine  and  helps  to  keep  the  bowels 
open. 

Potatoes  and  rice  are  useful  principally  for  their  starch. 
The  green  vegetables,  as  lettuce,  spinach,  onions,  kale,  and 
cauliflower,  are  useful  for  their  mineral  salts  and  organic 
acids  which  act  upon  the  liver  and  kidneys,  and  for  their 
bulk  material.  Where  men  are  deprived  of  these  or  any 
substitute  for  them  they  are  apt  to  contract  a  disease 
known  as  scurvy.  Many  vegetables  are  rich  in  iron- 
bearing  albumin,  which  is  necessary  for  the  structure  of 
the  blood  corpuscles.  Of  these  celery  and  spinach  are 
probably  best. 

All  green  vegetables  should  be  put  on  to  cook  in  boiling 
water.  Add  salt  to  the  water  in  which  greens  or  vegetables 
grown  overground  are  cooked;  underground  vegetables  are 
better  if  salt  is  added  after  cooking.  Cabbage,  cauliflower, 
onions,  and  other  vegetables  containing  volatile  oil  must 
be  boiled  rapidly  in  an  uncovered  vessel. 
Corn  Meal:1 

Food  value:  Wheat  flour  contains  just  a  little  more 
protein  than  corn  meal,  and  a  very  small  amount  more 
starch.  Corn  meal,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  roughly 
four  and  a  half  times  as  much  fat  as  wheat,  and  three  times 
as  much  mineral  matter. 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  565,  Corn  Meal  as  a  Food,  and  Ways  of 
Using  It, 


HOME    SCIENCE  223 

Corn  Meal  Dishes  for  the  Schoolroom: 

(a)  Corn  bread. 

(b)  Mush  and  milk;  fried  mush  plain,  or  with  sugar 
sirup,  or  cheese  sauce. 

(c)  Meat  scrapple. 

(d)  Spider  corn  cake. 
Rice: 

1.  Composition  and  food  value. 

2.  Use  of  rice  with  meat. 
Rice  Dishes  for  the  Schoolroom* 

(a)  Plain  steamed  rice. 

(b)  Rice  cooked  in  milk,  with  raisins. 

(c)  Rice  croquettes. 

(d)  Casserole  of  meat  and  rice. 
Bread:1 

1.  Why  is  bread  called  "The  staff  of  life?" 

2.  Principles  of  good  bread  making. 

3.  Hard-grain  wheats.     How  flour  is  made. 

4.  Graham  flour.     Boston  brown  bread. 

5.  Unwholesomeness  of  hot  breads. 

6.  Can  one  live  on  bread  alone?2 

SANITATION 

Much  has  been  said  in  the  chapter  on  "Physical  Training 
and  Hygiene"  concerning  the  need  of  concentrated  work  in 
sanitation  in  the  rural  districts.  With  the  opening  of 
spring,  inaugurate  a  "Clean-up  Week."  Begin  with  the 
schoolhouse;  see  that  buildings  and  grounds  are  put  in 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No   389,  Bread  and  Bread  Making. 

2  A  collection  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  on  foods  issued  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  will  aid  in  the  school  study  of  home  economics. 


224       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

first-class  condition.  Establish  a  system  of  credits  for 
home  work.  Following  are  points  that  may  be  covered: 
Cleaning  yard,  pruning  trees,  pruning  bushes  and  vines, 
setting  out  trees  and  shrubs,  building  trellises,  painting  or 
whitewashing  fence  and  outbuildings,  painting  house, 
cleaning  windows,  cleaning  or  papering  walls,  painting 
inside  woodwork  and  floors,  cleaning  room.1 

Organize  a  Civic  League,  with  the  proper  officers  and 
committees.  Aim  to  interest  the  parents  as  much  as 
possible.  Small  prizes  may  be  offered  for: 

The  best  kept  lawn. 

The  most  attractive  display  of  porch  boxes. 

The  best  line  of  bird  houses. 

The  best  drinking  fountain  for  the  birds. 

The  best  display  of  ornamental  plants  on  the  lawn. 

The  most  attractive  summerhouse. 

Novel  ideas  in  garden  seats. 

The  neatest  kept  hedge. 

The  most  flourishing  arbor. 

The  best  croquet  ground. 

The  best  tennis  court. 

Trellises  of  vines  screening  approach  to  toilet. 

The  best  homemade  lawn  swing,  garden  chair,  and 
hammock. 

The  slogans  "Swat  the  Fly,"  and  " Death  to  the  Mos- 
quito," are  worth  pushing.  Inaugurate  an  active  cam- 
paign against  these  pests.? 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  185,  Beautifying  the  HomeGrounds;No.  432, 
How  a  City  Family  Managed  a  Farm;  No.  270,  Modern  Conveniences  for  the 
Farm  Home. 

•See  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  155,  444,  450,  459,  463,  478. 


HOME    SCIENCE  225 

Care  of  the  Sick: 

1.  Making  bed. 

2.  Bathing. 

3.  Care  of  room. 

4.  Poultices. 

5.  Hot-bran  bags,  a  substitute  for  hot- water  bottle. 

6.  Consideration  of  the  patient's  diet. 

(a)  Tempting  foods. 

(b)  Attractive  serving. 

7.  Cheerfulness. 

8.  Care  of  convalescent. 

9.  What  not  to  do. 
10.  Disinfection. 

THE  HOME 

The  Model  Farm  Home.  Encourage  the  boys  and  girls 
to  plan  homes  they,  would  like  to  own.  These  may  be 
modeled  in  clay  or  plaster,  drawn  with  pen  and  ink,  or 
simply  fashioned  from  pictures  selected  from  papers  and 
magazines  and  pasted  on  a  sheet  of  cardboard  or  heavy 
Manila  paper.  Let  them  plan  the  different  rooms  of  their 
house,  giving  particular  attention  to  simplicity,  conven- 
ience, and  color  scheme.1 
Problems: 

1.  An  inviting  hall.  7.  The  model  bathroom. 

2.  The  stairway.  8.  The  sleeping  porch. 

3.  Cozy  corners.  9.  Attractive  bedrooms. 

4.  A  cheerful  living  room.       10.  Arrangement  of  the  base- 

5.  The  dining  room.  ment. 

6.  The  model  kitchen.  n.  The  water  system. 

12.  The  light  and  heating  plants. 
1  See  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  126,  432,  and  607. 


226       THE    TEACHER,    THE    SCHOOL,    AND   THE    COMMUNITY 

Get  as  many  pictures  as  possible  from  the  household 
and  trade  journals  illustrating  these  points,  the  object 
being  to  train  the  taste  and  ideals  of  the  future  home 
makers. 

In  home  decoration  the  keynote  should  be  appropriate- 
ness, whether  in  a  palace  or  a  cottage.  Color  should  be 
carefully  considered.  Bright  colors  and  tints  should  not  be 
used  without  very  good  reason.  The  eye  should  be  trained 
in  color  combinations,  and  bright  colors  should  not  be 
used  together;  for  if  too  intense,  they  will  discord,  and 
offend  the  eye  as  discord  in  music  offends  the  ear. 
Problems  for  Youthful  Decorators: 

1.  The  walls  —  their  position  as  the  background  of  the 
home.     If  paint  is  used,  soft,  neutral  colors  are  desir- 
able.    Avoid  large  flower  or  scroll  designs  in  wall  paper. 
Why? 

2.  The  pictures  —  which  should  be  few  in  number  and 
of  real  worth.     Copies  from  the  great  masters  may  be 
obtained  at  little  cost.     Avoid  gaudy  frames  and  cheap 
collections  of  family  portraits.     Passepartout  a  few  good 
pictures.     These  may  be  hung  in  the  schoolroom  or  the 
children  may  have  them  for  their  own  rooms  at  home. 

3.  The  woodwork. 

(a)  What  kinds  of  finish  are  desirable? 

(b)  Samples  of  different  stained  woods  may  be  studied. 

4.  Curtains  and  draperies.     Exhibit  pictures  of  effective 
door  and  window  treatment.     Show  samples  of  materials 
and  discuss  their  comparative  value.     Girls  select  their 
favorite  material  and  illustrate  an  attractive  window  drape 
by  drawing,  or  by  the  use  of  tissue  paper. 

5.  The  treatment  of  floors. 


HOME    SCIENCE  227 

(a)  What  finish  is  most  desirable? 

(b)  Why  are  rugs  preferred  to  carpets? 

(c)  Talk  about  linoleum  and  other  floor  coverings:  how 
these  are  made;  their  value  in  various  rooms. 

Textiles.  Exhibit  samples  of  sheeting,  pillowcase  and 
table  linen,  and  the  common  dress  fabrics.  Teach  the  girls 
to  recognize  them  at  sight  and  to  know  their  value.  Have 
them  look  up  the  stories  of  flax,  cotton,  and  silk.  Find  out 
how  calicoes  and  other  goods  are  printed.  Is  it  economical 
for  a  woman  to  spend  her  time  making  such  articles  as 
sheets  and  pillowcases,  when  these  can  be  bought  of  good 
quality  ready  made? 

The  Class  in  Gumption.  A  recent  writer  on  household 
problems  tells  of  a  school  where  a  class  in  gumption  was  a 
part  of  the  daily  program.  "The  pupils  were  taught  how 
to  do  all  sorts  of  handy  jobs  about  a  home,  stopping  leaks, 
setting  panes  of  glass,  fixing  refractory  locks  and  hinges, 
putting  new  washers  on  faucets,  making  simple  labor-saving 
devices  out  of  material  at  hand  —  in  fact,  learning  to  adapt 
themselves  quickly  to  any  need  which  arose."  Can  you 
imagine  anything  more  practical?  Surely  gumption  —  the 
adaptation  of  practical  common  sense  —  is  more  necessary 
in  housekeeping  than  in  any  other  walk  of  life.  Let  us 
have  more  of  such  classes! 
Problems: 

1.  Making  old  furniture  new. 

2.  Cretonne  and  a  box  of  tacks. 

3.  Handy  devices  for  the  home. 

(a)  Dish  drain.  (d)  Footstool. 

(b)  Clothes  rack.  (e)  Newspaper  rack. 

(c)  Ironing  board. 


228       THE   TEACHER,  THE   SCHOOL,  AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

4.  The  fireless  cooker.1 

5.  A  cheap  and  efficient  ice  box.2 

6.  A  cheap  and  efficient  sterilizer.2 

Thrift.  Housekeeping  is  a  business,  just  as  difficult 
and  important  as  any  commercial  enterprise.  To  carry  it 
on  successfully  requires  a  high  degree  of  skill,  wide  informa- 
tion, and  judgment.  To  these  characteristics  must  be  added 
thrift.  "  Thrift  is  not  an  affair  of  the  pocketbook,  but  of 
character,"  says  Miss  Florence  E.  Ward,  specialist  in  club 
work,  Department  of  Agriculture;  "one  can  be  a  spend- 
thrift on  a  dollar  as  well  as  on  a  thousand  dollars."  Thrice 
blessed  is  that  teacher  who  succeeds  in  impressing  this  upon 
her  pupils,  and  who  leads  them  to  an  understanding  of  the 
basic  principle  of  home  science  —  true  economy,  which 
means  not  only  saving,  but  planning,  earning,  and  con- 
serving. Wise  economy  makes  scrimping  unnecessary,  and 
proves  conclusively  that  "money  is  valuable  only  as  it 
serves  to  make  people  happier  and  better." 

Teaching  the  pupils  to  be  thrifty  can  be  made  practical 
and  interesting. 

1.  Put  an  itemized  jumble  of  a  day's  work  on  the  board. 
Have  the  pupils  put  it  into  desirable  routine.     Discuss 
the  various  plans.     Determine  who  has  the  best  one  and 
why. 

2.  Specify  a  certain  sum  to  provide  food  for  a  family  of 
six  one  week.     Let  the  pupils  work  out  menus  which  shall 
conform  to  food  requirements  and  keep  within  the  sum  set, 
saving  a  little  if  possible. 

3.  Teach  the  keeping  of  household  accounts. 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  296. 

2  Described  in  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  353. 


HOME   SCIENCE  229 

4.  Show  how  money  may  be  saved  by  buying  in  quan- 
tity. 

5.  Discuss  the  value  of  a  truck  and  fruit  garden  in  home 
economy. 

6.  Keep  a  bulletin  of  "savings,"   —little  discoveries  in 
the  economy  of  time,  material,  and  money:    such  as,  "A 
pinch  of  soda  in  sour  apple  sauce  is  a  saving  of  sugar." 
"Salt  sprinkled  upon  anything  which  has  boiled  over  on 
the  stove  or  in  the  oven  stops  the  smudge." 


CHAPTER  XIX 
SCHOOL   RECREATIONS   AND  AMUSEMENTS 

Our  minds  often  need  rest  to  be  better  able  to  take  up  the 
subject  in  hand.  Bishop  Hall  says,  "  Recreation  is  to  the 
mind,  as  whetting  is  to  the  scythe,  to  sharpen  the  edge  of  it 
which  would  otherwise  grow  dull  and  blunt."  School 
recreations  and  amusements  are  important  factors  in  the 
make-up  of  every  good  school.  Rightly  conducted  they 
are  valuable  aids  in  school  government,  and  may  advan- 
tageously employ  much  time  that  would  otherwise  be 
wasted.  Teachers  have  long  recognized  the  fact  that 
children  need  change  and  variety.  It  is  one  of  the  teacher's 
problems  to  furnish  scope  for  the  ever-increasing  mental 
and  bodily  activity  of  the  child,  to  supply  new  food  for 
thought  and  new  subjects  of  interest.  The  mastery  of  the 
assigned  lesson  is  only  a  part  of  the  pupil's  education.  He 
must  be  led  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  current  events,  and 
to  become  acquainted  with  literature.  The  time  that  can 
be  taken  from  the  regular  work  of  the  classes  and  given  to 
more  general  information  is  limited.  Therefore,  the  best 
use  should  be  made  of  it.  Pupils  would  be  able  to  do 
better  work  if  they  had  a  few  minutes,  recreation  after  each 
hour's  study. 

In  the  majority  of  American  schools,  it  is  customary  to 
have  some  form  of  devotional  exercises  in  the  morning. 
These  when  properly  conducted  may  be  made  the  means 
of  profitable  recreation;  their  attractiveness  lending  a 

230 


SCHOOL   RECREATIONS   AND   AMUSEMENTS  231 

special  incentive  to  punctuality  in  the  morning.  Where 
Scripture  readings  are  used,  selections  should  be  made 
which  are  complete  stories  in  themselves  or  which  contain 
strong  moral  lessons.  It  is  not  advisable  to  comment  on 
Scriptural  readings,  but  there  can  be  no  objection  to  com- 
ments of  a  purely  historical,  literary,  or  moral  character, 
and  they  may  add  greatly  to  the  force  of  the  reading. 
Many  passages  of  Scripture  contain  little  meaning  when 
read  apart  from  their  historical  setting.  Incidents  of  the 
Bible  narrative  have  been  made  the  themes  for  many 
notable  poems  and  songs.  It  heightens  the  effect  to  use 
narrative,  poem,  and  song  together  when  possible.  The 
following  illustration  will  show  how  this  may  be  done. 

A  good  example  of  faith  and  courage  is  revealed  in  the 
story  of  how  captive  Daniel  stood  before  the  throng  at  the 
impious  feast  of  the  king  Belshazzar  and,  rebuking  the  king 
for  pride  and  idolatry,  read  and  interpreted  the  hand 
writing  on  the  wall.  The  Bible  narrative  is  found  in  the 
fifth  chapter  of  Daniel.  Read  the  well-know  poem  by 
Lord  Byron  entitled,  "The  Vision  of  Belshazzar."  The 
narrative  also  suggests  the  familiar  hymn,  "The  Hand- 
writing on  the  Wall." 

Generally  the  Scripture  readings  will  occupy  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  time  devoted  to  opening  exercises.  To  these 
readings  may  be  added  responsive  quotations  at  roll  call, 
a  school  newspaper,  discussions  of  current  events  and 
other  items  of  interest.  When  quotations  are  used,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  ask  for  quotations  from  some  particular 
author  or  upon  specified  subjects.  Quotations  of  thought- 
fragments  will  be  of  little  value,  for  they  may  be  gathered 
almost  without  effort  by  the  pupil.  The  newspaper  might 


232       THE   TEACHER,   THE    SCHOOL,   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

appear  weekly,  biweekly,  or  monthly,  as  the  school  prefers. 
Editors  should  be  appointed  for  the  various  departments; 
editorial,  society,  current  events,  local  news,  and  advertise- 
ments. A  school  paper  conducted  properly  would  give 
the  pupil  valuable  information  regarding  the  preparation  of 
manuscript  and  the  general  make-up  of  a  paper,  besides 
being  a  source  of  never-failing  interest  and  no  little 
amusement. 

Aside  from  the  opening  exercises,  the  recitation  always 
presents  scope  for  recreation.  A  change  in  the  manner  of 
recitation,  from  time  to  time,  is  an  excellent  thing.  Sup- 
pose, for  instance,  that  the  class  in  geography  has  been 
studying  the  Mississippi  River  system  and  is  fully  pre- 
pared to  tell  where  the  river  rises,  how  long  it  is,  between 
what  states  it  flows,  and  so  on.  Instead  of  going  through 
the  routine  of  questions  and  answer  during  the  class  period, 
the  skillful  teacher  takes  pupils  on  an  imaginary  ride  down 
the  river  from  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  They  are  led  to 
observe  the  varied  resources  and  industries  of  the  region 
through  which  they  pass,  the  size  of  the  various  cities,  some 
of  their  famous  buildings,  their  " nicknames"  and  history, 
the  advantages  which  they  possess  for  trading  and  manu- 
facturing, the  sportive  names  of  the  states  passed,  some- 
thing of  their  people  and  history.  The  teacher  occa- 
sionally reads  selections  relating  to  some  point  which  they 
are  passing,  and  shows  interesting  views  of  buildings  and 
scenery  along  the  route.  Then,  too,  she  has  samples  of 
products  from  the  different  localities,  which  the  pupils 
examine  with  interest.  Very  likely  it  takes  more  than  a 
week  for  them  to  reach  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  the  time  has 
been  well  spent,  and  they  have  learned  more  about  the 


SCHOOL  RECREATIONS   AND  AMUSEMENTS  233 

Mississippi  Valley  than  they  would  in  a  month  in  the  old 
way.  After  the  journey  is  over  they  write  a  composition 
about  their  trip. 

Many  teachers  neglect  composition  work.  Exercises  in 
the  expression  of  thought  should  be  constant  from  the  time 
the  child  enters  school  until  he  leaves  it.  The  Committee 
of  Ten  report  that  pupils  should  begin  to  compose  in 
writing  not  later  than  the  third  year.  Before  this  time, 
they  should  copy  selections  from  the  printed  page,  from 
memory,  and  from  dictation,  as  an  exercise  in  spelling, 
capitalization,  and  punctuation.  Too  often  pupils  regard 
composition  writing  as  a  dreaded  task.  Often  teachers 
expect  too  much  of  pupils;  it  takes  time  and  practice  to 
produce  an  excellent  composition.  Good  results  may  be 
obtained  by  talking  with  the  pupils  about  a  subject,  and 
then  asking  them  to  write  what  they  can  about  it  within 
a  given  tune.  The  work  should  always  be  read  and  kindly 
criticized.  The  time  for  writing  may  gradually  be  ex- 
tended, and  the  pupils  will  soon  be  able  to  write  readily  and 
naturally.  A  composition  hour  should  be  arranged  in  the 
Friday  afternoon  program. 

It  has  become  quite  a  puzzle  for  teachers  to  know  what 
to  do  on  Friday  afternoon  since  speaking  pieces  has  gone 
out  of  fashion.  Why  not  occasionally  revive  the  old  cus- 
tom, which  had  so  much  to  commend  it?  Prepare  an 
attractive,  interesting  program,  and  invite  the  parents  to  be 
present.  Detail  committees  to  wait  upon  the  guests,  and 
to  exhibit  and  explain  the  specimens  of  school  work  which 
decorate  the  room.  It  is  not  advisable  to  spend  much  time 
decorating  for  the  occasion;  let  the  decorations  be  the 
accumulation  of  the  term's  work.  After  the  program  has 


234       THE   TEACHER,   THE   SCHOOL,   AND  THE   COMMUNITY 

been  given,  let  the  teacher  announce  the  intention  to  have 
every  Friday  afternoon  "reception  afternoon,"  and  invite 
the  parents  to  be  present  whenever  possible.  Then  she 
must  mass  her  energies  to  gather  attractive  Friday  after- 
noon material.  No  one  should  go  away  from  a  meeting  of 
this  kind  without  a  feeling  of  conscious  gain  for  himself  or 
of  pride  in  the  work  and  success  of  the  pupils.  Composi- 
tions, minute  speeches,  hours  with  noted  authors,  quizzes, 
and  conundrums  are  among  the  many  features  that  help 
to  make  an  interesting  program. 

Besides  the  Friday  afternoon  program,  there  are  the 
celebrations  of  authors'  birthdays,  and  of  days  notable  in 
American  history.  These  may  be  planned  so  that  they  will 
interfere  but  little  with  the  regular  work  of  the  school,  by 
assigning  different  parts  of  the  exercises  to  different  divi- 
sions of  pupils. 

Space  forbids  dwelling  upon  the  subjects  of  the  old-time 
school  exhibitions,  of  school  debates,  of  gymnastic  recrea- 
tions, of  experiment  lessons,  and  the  countless  other  items 
that  come  under  the  head  of  recreation.  In  this,  as  in  all 
other  departments  of  school  work,  the  teacher  must  be 
careful  not  to  ride  a  hobby.  As  Bishop  Hall  says,  "He 
that  spends  his  whole  time  in  recreation  is  ever  whetting, 
never  mowing;  his  grass  may  grow  and  his  steed  may  starve. 
The  work  goes  forward  when  the  scythe  is  so  seasonably 
and  moderately  whetted  that  it  may  cut,  and  so  cut  that 
it  may  have  the  help  of  sharpening." 

Here,  also,  the  subject  of  out-door  amusements  demands 
attention.  Mental  work  is  wearing,  and  will  soon  produce 
physical  exhaustion  in  a  growing  child.  He  needs  out- 
door exercise,  and  happy,  healthful  play.  No  amount  of 


SCHOOL  RECREATIONS   AND   AMUSEMENTS  235 

punishment  is  half  so  effective  as  a  half  hour  of  hard  play 
to  curb  the  spirit  of  mischief  and  disorder. 

The  teacher  should  manifest  an  intelligent  interest  in 
the  pupils'  amusements.  Whenever  possible,  she  should 
become  their  companion  as  well  as  teacher.  She  will 
thus  win  their  confidence  and  regard,  and  her  field  for  useful- 
ness will  be  widened.  "The  teacher  should  feel  an  interest 
in  the  sports  of  his  pupils  that  is  as  great  as  his  interest  in 
their  studies;  for  play  is  an  essential  of  healthy  develop- 
ment. Every  honest,  sound,  hearty  game  is  just  so  much 
added  to  the  reserve  force  of  health  for  the  future;  is  just 
so  much  added  to  the  light-heartedness  of  the  present/'1 
1  Horace  Mann. 


CHAPTER  XX 
DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS 

Between  people  who  are  so  often  brought  into  contact  as 
teachers  and  parents,  it  is  desirable  that  there  should  exist 
some  well-defined  understanding  regarding  relative  duties 
and  obligations.  In  many  of  our  public  schools,  the  use- 
fulness of  one  teacher  after  another  is  effectually  destroyed 
through  want  of  sympathy  between  the  school  and  the 
home.  Too  often  the  parents  row  in  one  direction  and  the 
teacher  in  another.  Why  is  this?  Let  us  inquire  into  some 
of  the  causes  of  misunderstanding  between  parents  and 
teachers. 

Parents  often  do  not  sufficiently  recognize  the  importance 
of  the  school.  This  lack  of  appreciation  shows  itself  in 
many  ways.  Chief  among  them  is  keeping  the  pupils  at 
home  for  trifles.  Mr.  Blank  makes  a  trip  to  a  neighboring 
city,  and  Tommy  coaxes  to  accompany  him;  as  he  has  not 
been  away  for  some  time,  the  request  is  granted.  Next 
morning  Tommy  returns  to  school,  but  at  noon  he  reports 
that  the  lessons  for  the  afternoon  are  all  so  easy,  just  what 
he  has  had  before  and  knows  perfectly,  and  he  doesn't  see 
any  use  in  going  back  that  afternoon.  So  he  stays  at  home, 
and  very  likely  does  not  return  to  school  for  a  week,  and 
then  it  is  only  a  few  days  until  another  break.  It  is  im- 
possible to  interest  him  in  school  at  this  rate. 

The  following  story  indicates  conditions  with  which  one 
rural  school  teacher  had  to  contend.  The  nearest  house 

236 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS  237 

was  within  a  stone's  throw  of  the  schoolhouse,  and  from 
this  home  came  five  pupils.  There  were  two  little  tots  at 
home,  and  the  mother  was  naturally  a  busy  woman  who 
needed  much  help.  She  fully  understood  how  to  keep  the 
children  busy,  and  hardly  knew  how  to  get  along  without 
them.  She  finally  hit  upon  a  plan  by  which  they  could 
attend  school  and  help  her,  too.  Fortunately,  they  had 
a  dinner  bell,  and  when  she  wanted  a  pail  of  water  or  an 
armful  of  wood,  one  tap  of  the  bell  signaled  Willie;  or  per- 
haps the  baby  was  cross  and  needed  some  one  to  play  with, 
then  two  taps  brought  Emma,  and  so  on  for  the  other 
three.  Of  course  the  bell  often  caught  the  youngsters  right 
in  the  midst  of  a  recitation,  but  they  were  expected  to  drop 
everything  and  run.  The  teacher  endured  this  for  nearly  two 
weeks,  and  then  she  ventured  to  remonstrate,  and  finally, 
to  the  indignation  of  the  mother,  refused  to  allow  the  chil- 
dren to  leave  the  room  during  school  hours.  The  parents 
succeeded  in  keeping  that  teacher  from  being  reappointed 
the  following  term. 

Parents  are  apt  to  overestimate  their  children's  knowl- 
edge. They  are  too  anxious  to  have  them  advance,  and 
thus  they  encourage  superficial  work.  One  mother  was 
heard  to  complain  before  her  little  daughter  that  the  child's 
arithmetic,  an  ordinary  third-grade  book,  was  too  easy. 
It  contained  nothing  but  what  she  had  had  for  over  a  year; 
there  were  not  enough  problems,  and  it  did  not  "get  down 
to  business."  It  was  suggested  that  it  was  a  difficult 
matter  for  a  child  of  eight  years  to  "get  down  to  business," 
as  her  reasoning  faculties  were  not  developed,  and  that  it 
was  better  for  her  to  drill  on  the  fundamental  operations 
until  she  could  perform  the  work  quickly  and  accurately 


238   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

before  attempting  anything  more  difficult.  Upon  ques- 
tioning the  teacher,  it  was  found  that  when  this  child  was 
left  to  do  her  work  alone  she  was  careless  and  apt  to  make 
mistakes,  and  needed  just  the  drill  she  was  getting. 

A  young  lady  of  sixteen  who  prided  herself  on  having 
attended  school  in  Chicago,  appeared  in  the  " upper  room" 
of  a  small  village  school  of  two  rooms  the  second  week  of 
the  term,  and  astonished  the  teacher  by  saying  she  would 
like  to  study  algebra,  geometry,  ancient  history,  Latin,  and 
astronomy.  The  teacher  frankly  told  her  that  she  was 
willing  to  teach  her  what  she  could  if  the  pupil  could 
satisfy  her  of  being  prepared  for  such  work.  The  pupil 
wanted  to  review  algebra,  and  objected  to  reciting  with 
the  "  beginning  class,"  because  she  had  been  over  the  work 
and  could  probably  go  faster  than  the  class.  But  the 
teacher  refused  to  have  another  class,  as  there  was  not  time 
for  it.  The  teacher  had  a  suspicion  that  the  pupil  did  not 
know  as  much  as  she  thought  she  did,  and  experienced 
some  satisfaction  in  completely  confusing  her  in  the 
division  of  one  polynomial  by  another.  Then  the  teacher 
insisted  upon  seeing  the  grades  from  the  former  school,  or 
else  upon  giving  an  examination  before  commencing  the 
other  studies.  The  next  day  the  pupil  brought  a  common 
school  diploma!  She  was  put  with  the  ninth  grade,  and 
soon  proved  to  be  the  poorest  scholar  in  the  class.  She 
attended  the  school  only  a  short  time.  What  was  the  use? 
The  teacher  didn't  know  anything!  There  are  many  other 
young  people  not  unlike  this  young  lady. 

Parents  are  too  critical.  Many  are  constantly  on  the 
lookout  for  mistakes,  and  criticize  the  teacher  before  their 
children. 


DUTIES   OF   PARENTS   AND   TEACHERS  239 

Some  parents  are  inclined  to  dictate.  A  good  many  of 
the  parents  nowadays  have  either  "kept  school,"  or  have 
some  pretty  well  denned  ideas  as  to  how  it  should  be  done. 
They  are  not  slow  to  send  messages  embodying  their  ideas, 
and  are  offended  if  the  teacher  does  not  adopt  them  at  once. 
Doubtless  many  teachers  have  had  an  invitation  from  some 
friendly  patron  to  bring  difficulties  to  her  if  they  need  help, 
because  she  has  taught  school  and  knows  just  what  diffi- 
culties teachers  have! 

A  lack  of  personal  acquaintance  frequently  results  in 
misunderstandings.  Teachers  sometimes  spend  months 
with  pupils  whose  parents  they  have  never  seen.  During 
this  time,  the  parents  have  probably  formed  their  opinion 
of  the  teacher,  and  spoken  freely  either  for  or  against  her, 
and  yet  very  likely  they  do  not  even  know  her  by  sight! 
All  the  knowledge  they  have  is  derived  through  their  chil- 
dren, a  knowledge  which  may  be  right,  or  it  may  be  wrong. 
Too  many  people  believe  implicitly  what  their  children 
come  home  and  tell. 

We  must  not  be  understood  to  blame  the  parents  for  all 
these  troubles.  Often  teachers  are  wholly  unworthy  the 
confidence  and  cooperation  of  the  parents.  Not  a  few 
indolent,  ignorant  persons  have  been  licensed  to  teach 
through  having  influence  with  the  county  superintendent. 
They  have  gained  their  situations  through  paper  qualifica- 
tions, and  so  far  as  usefulness  in  their  schools  is  concerned, 
they  might  as  well  be  paper  teachers.  Again,  while  the 
teacher  maybe  well-educated,  she  may  be  too  self-sufficient, 
too  pedantic,  or  too  haughty,  and  unable  to  teach. 

As  a  means  of  avoiding  these  evils,  or  of  removing  them 
when  they  have  found  a  place,  let  us  consider  some  of  these 


240   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

mutual  deficiencies.     Let  us  first  take  up  the  duties  of  the 
teacher. 

1.  She  should  fully  recognize  the  importance  of  her  work. 

2.  She   should   seek    to   become   acquainted   with    the 
parents. 

3.  She  should  be  willing  to  explain  her  plans  to  the 
parents. 

4.  She  should  encourage  the  parents  to  visit  the  school. 

5.  She  should  truthfully  represent  the  children  to  their 
parents. 

The  parent  inquires,  "How  does  Johnny  get  along?" 
"Oh,"  says  the  teacher  pleasantly,  "Johnny  is  doing 
nicely." 

However,  Johnny  may  be  doing  anything  but  nicely; 
possibly  the  teacher  might  have  been  even  then  pondering 
over  what  to  do  with  Johnny.  The  answer  does  not  long 
deceive  the  parent,  and  is  injurious  to  both  teacher  and 
pupil. 

6.  Teachers  should  have  "good  manners."     From  their 
almost  constant  contact  with  pupils,  they  are  apt  to  think 
their  own  opinions  infallible;  and  they  sometimes  commit 
the  ridiculous  error  of  treating  those  wiser  than  themselves 
as  children  in  knowledge.     The  teacher  should  endeavor 
to  make  her  conversation  instructive,  but  she  should  assume 
no  airs  of  superior  wisdom.     She  should  remember  that  the 
majority  of  persons  like  to  learn  without  being  reminded 
that  they  are  learners. 

7.  She  should  be  willing  to  give  her  whole  time  to  the 
school  if  necessary. 

8.  She   should    carefully   and    conscientiously   perform 
every  known  duty.     She  can  then  be  happy,  for  there  will 


DUTIES    OF    PARENTS   AND   TEACHERS  241 

be  the  satisfaction  of  having  performed  her  duties  to  the 
best  of  her  ability. 

But  after  all,  her  success  will  depend  very  much  on  the 
parents.  They  must  come  forward  and  crown  -the  work. 
How  many  teachers  have  had  the  satisfaction  of  hearing  a 
parent  say: 

"My  little  girl  has  learned  more  this  term  than  she  ever 
did  before,"  or  "I  never  can  thank  you  enough  for  what 
you  have  done  for  my  boy." 

Let  us  next  consider  some  of  the  duties  of  the  parents. 

1.  Parents  should  reciprocate  the  teacher's  attempts  to 
get  acquainted. 

2.  They   should   visit    the    school.     It    stimulates    the 
teacher  and  pupils  to  do  better  work.     Parents  should 
manifest   an  interest  in   their   children's   studies.     Often 
they  do  not  even  know  what  their  children  are  studying. 
We  know  a  lady  who  helps  her  little  boy  with  all  his  lessons 
every  evening.     This  is  a  good  plan,  provided  the  parent 
does  not  give  too  much  help.     We  have  known  children  to 
prepare  their  lessons  at  home  so  as  to  have  more  time  to 
play  in  school.     This  makes  a  great  deal  of  extra  work  for 
the  teacher  who  must  provide  profitable  busy  work  for 
them.     Children  who  are  accustomed  to  having  help  with 
their  lessons  will  seldom  master  any  difficulty  for  them- 
selves. 

3.  Parents  should  learn  the  teacher's  plans  and  do  all  in 
their  power  to  aid. 

4.  They  should  promptly  supply  the  necessary  books  and 
other  supplies.     If  a  parent  has  a  doubt  about  the  neces- 
sity for  a  new  book,  he  should  see  the  teacher  about  it  at 
once,  and  not  send  an  uncivil  or  angry  message  by  the 


242   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

child,  or  worse  still,  spend  an  hour  or  two  gossiping  with  the 
neighbors  on  the  teacher's  folly  of  pushing  the  children 
through  books. 

5.  Parents  should  see  that  their  children  are  decently 
clothed,  and  cleanly  in  their  persons.     The  character  of  the 
mother  is  reflected  in  the  persons  of  her  children.     Let  one 
but  take  an  inventory  of  the  child  and  he  has  a  fair  idea  of 
the  condition  of  the  home.     Soap  and  water  are  cheap  and 
there  is  no  reason  for  the  teacher  to  be  insulted  with  filthi- 
ness.     She  can  have  no  heart  to  come  in  contact  with  such 
pupils.     It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  send  a  child  home  with 
a  note  to  the  mother  requesting  that  she  give  him  a  bath 
and  clean  clothes  before  allowing  him  to  return  to  school. 

6.  Parents  should  see  that  their  children  attend  punctu- 
ally and  regularly.     Children  who  are  too  ill  to  go  to  school 
should  be  treated  as  sick  patients,  and  not  be  allowed  to 
romp  about  the  house,  read,  or  look  at  picture  books. 

7.  Parents  should  be  slow  in  condemning  the  teacher. 
Often  some  highly  deserving  youth  who  has  been  punished 
for  his  dark  deeds  determines  upon  revenge,   and  tells 
his  story  to  any  one  who  will  hear  it.     The  inconsiderate 
parent  listens  sympathizingly  and  heartily  condemns  the 
teacher;  often  going  so  far  as  to  make  a  hurried  visit  to  the 
school,  and  angrily  lecturing  the  teacher  before  the  pupils, 
without  learning  her   side  of  the  story.     If  the   teacher 
attempts  to  explain  matters,  the  parent  refuses  to  hear  any- 
thing different  from  Johnny's  version,  and  goes  away  very 
indignant,  mentally  resolving  to  do  everything  in  his  power 
to  keep  the  teacher  from  teaching  the  school  another  term. 

Parents  often  expect  more  of  a  teacher  than  she  can 
possibly  accomplish.     They  expect  the  school   to  be   a 


DUTIES   OF   PARENTS   AND  TEACHERS  243 

model  of  good  order,  and  each  one  wants  his  child  to  be 
foremost  in  learning.  The  parent  often  compares  the 
teacher's  government  with  his  own  family  discipline.  He 
forgets  his  frequent  fits  of  impatience,  even  in  his  little 
circle,  and  wonders  at  the  "unrestrained  temper"  of  the 
teacher,  who  is  probably  doing  all  that  can  be  expected, 
with  some  thirty  or  forty  pupils  whose  tempers,  capacities, 
and  habits  are  as  different  as  their  countenances.  Con- 
sider the  life  of  the  teacher.  Every  error  in  matter  or  man- 
ner of  the  class  work  must  be  corrected;  and  at  the  same 
time,  the  stolen  whisper  must  be  heard,  the  idler  must  be 
watched  and  his  plaything  captured,  the  arch  trick  must 
be  anticipated,  the  wayward  set  right,  and  the  stubborn 
and  impudent  subdued.  Who  can  wonder  that  the  teacher 
should  sometimes  make  mistakes  in  discipline? 

8.  Lastly,  parents  should  give  the  teacher  their  sym- 
pathy. If  teachers  could  have  the  sympathy  and  active 
cooperation  of  parents,  the  profession  would  soon  be  filled 
with  devoted  and  talented  men  and  women  willing  to 
sacrifice  all  for  their  work. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  REWARDS  OF  THE  SUCCESSFUL 
TEACHER 

It  has  been  alleged,  and  with  much  justice,  that  the  call- 
ing of  the  teacher,  which  demands  for  its  successful  exer- 
cise the  best  of  talents,  the  most  persevering  energy,  and 
the  largest  share  of  self-denial,  has  never  attained  an  appre- 
ciation in  the  public  mind  at  all  commensurate  with  its 
importance.  It  has  by  no  means  received  the  emoluments, 
either  in  money  or  honor,  which  strict  justice  would  award 
in  any  other  department  to  the  talents  and  exertions  re- 
quired for  this.  Not  a  few  talented  teachers  have  been 
forced  to  leave  the  profession  because  they  could  not 
earn  enough  to  support  their  families,  and  in  many  instances 
their  places  have  been  filled  by  persons  too  young  and  igno- 
rant to  be  employed  elsewhere. 

The  people  have  been  very  slow  in  awakening  to  the 
pecuniary  value  of  the  teacher's  labor.  Happily  the  time 
has  passed  when  the  farmers  and  mechanics  of  a  school 
district  felt  that  they  could  afford  to  pay  more  liberally  for 
washing  and  ironing,  for  making  butter  and  cheese,  or  for 
tilling  the  soil,  than  they  could  for  educating  the  immortal 
minds  of  their  children!  During  the  first  half  century  after 
the  Revolutionary  War,  schoolmasters  were  paid  from  ten  to 
fifteen  dollars  a  month,  exclusive  of  board;  and  the  school- 
mistress was  paid  from  three  to  eight  dollars  per  month. 
As  late  as  1814,  Mary  Lyon,  the  founder  of  Mt.  Holyoke 

244 


THE   REWARDS   OF   THE   SUCCESSFUL  TEACHER  245 

Seminary  and  College,  taught  her  first  district  school  in 
western  Massachusetts  for  three  dollars  a  month,  and 
" boarded  round." 

It  lies  within  the  power  of  the  teachers  to  control  the 
wages.  As  a  rule,  people  are  capable  of  recognizing  a  good 
teacher,  and  are  not  slow  to  believe  that  "the  laborer  is 
worthy  of  his  hire."  The  teacher  who  is  ready  to  devote 
heart  and  soul  to  her  work,  can  often  command  her  own 
salary  in  the  end.  How  many  teachers,  who  have  been 
about  to  leave  the  limited  district  where  they  were  teaching, 
have  been  told  by  parents  that  if  they  would  stay  for  an- 
other year  the  people  would  contribute  a  sum  sufficient  to 
make  up  the  difference  in  salary  gained  by  the  change? 
We  have  known  instances  of  this  kind,  but  those  teachers 
were  of  the  patient,  industrious,  never- tiring,  hard- 
to-find  species,  who  made  themselves  invaluable  to  the 
community. 

No  one  ever  heard  of  a  person  accumulating  great  riches 
by  teaching  school.  The  chief  reward  of  the  teacher  is  not 
mere  money-getting.  She  must  have  some  more  elevating, 
inspiring  motive,  if  she  desires  to  go  cheerfully  about  her 
daily  toil  and  find  enjoyment  in  the  tiresome  routine. 
There  are  many  rewards  in  teaching. 

The  teacher's  profession  affords  vast  opportunity  for 
intellectual  growth.  The  faithful,  devoted  teacher  always 
learns  more  than  her  pupils;  she  cannot  help  but  grow 
mentally.  She  comes  before  her  class  each  day  with  an 
increased  wealth  of  knowledge  and  a  variety  of  ideas  for 
illustration,  feeling  that  she  can  present  the  various  sub- 
jects in  a  manner  adapted  to  the  pupils'  comprehension. 
This  consciousness  of  power  is  a  reward  in  itself. 


246       THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

The  teacher's  profession  offers  an  incentive  for  moral 
growth.  She  recognizes  that  example  is  better  than  pre- 
cept, and  feels  the  need  of  constantly  keeping  a  watch 
over  her  own  thoughts  and  actions.  She  learns  self-con- 
trol. As  she  masters  her  impatience,  bridles  her  tongue, 
and  learns  to  smile  instead  of  showing  anger,  she  recog- 
nizes with  Seneca,  "That  the  most  powerful  is  he  who  has 
himself  in  his  power."  She  finds  that  her  moral  power 
over  others  is  much  increased  and  that  she  can  secure 
obedience  with  half  the  effort  formerly  required.  This 
conscious  victory  over  self  cannot  be  measured  by  a  money 
equivalent. 

A  consciousness  of  improvement  in  the  art  of  teaching  is 
another  reward.  As  her  own  knowledge  increases,  the 
teacher  feels  a  new  interest  in  the  various  subjects,  and  is 
filled  with  a  desire  to  interest  others.  She  studies  carefully 
to  use  the  proper  motives  and  incentives,  and  employs  all 
her  ingenuity  to  discover  the  natural  order  of  presenting 
truths  to  the  mind.  In  order  that  she  may  constantly  im- 
prove her  teaching,  the  teacher  must  daily  examine  her 
methods  and  results.  Pythagoras  gives  the  following 
advice:  "Let  not  sleep  fall  upon  thine  eyes  till  thou  hast 
thrice  reviewed  the  transactions  of  the  past  day.  Where 
have  I  turned  aside  from  rectitude?  What  have  I  been 
doing?  What  have  I  left  undone  which  I  ought  to  have 
done?  Begin  thus  from  the  first  act,  and  proceed;  and  in, 
conclusion,  at  the  ill  which  thou  hast  done,  be  troubled, 
and  rejoice  for  the  good.7' 

The  teacher  has  the  pleasure  of  watching  pupils'  mental 
growth.  As  she  stands  before  a  class  skillfully  presenting 
some  new  truth,  she  should  be  quickened  into  enthusiasm 


THE   REWARDS   OF   THE    SUCCESSFUL   TEACHER  247 

by  the  sparkling  eyes  and  shining  faces  of  her  pupils  as 
they  grasp  the  new  thoughts.  Their  evident  enjoyment 
of  the  lesson  is  a  reward  for  the  teacher.  She  should  feel 
amply  repaid  for  the  time  spent  in  preparing  the  lesson. 
From  day  to  day,  as  she  meets  her  classes,  she  can  watch 
them  grow  in  strength;  she  is  not  obliged  to  labor  without 
immediate  results.  A  teacher  employed  for  several  years 
in  the  same  community  is  often  astonished  at  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  young  who  come  first  as  mere  children, 
grow  into  men  and  women.  She  watches  them  with  an 
almost  parental  interest  as  they  take  their  places  in  the 
ranks  of  human  endeavor.  Have  they  not  grown  up  under 
her  eye,  their  minds  essentially  shaped  by  her  mind?  Here 
is  one  who  has  become  a  noted  author;  another  is  a  brilliant 
journalist;  another  bright  young  man  bids  fair  to  become  a 
distinguished  artist.  Some  have  become  noted  leaders  in 
civil  affairs;  others  have  entered  the  professional  ranks  and 
have  become  distinguished  for  their  attainments  in  science; 
and  nearly  all  are  engaged  in  various  departments  of 
honorable  industry.  She  counts  them  all  as  her  jewels. 
Is  not  this  a  precious  reward? 

The  teacher  enjoys  the  grateful  remembrance  of  pupils 
and  their  friends.  Some  of  the  finest  moments  a  teacher 
ever  experiences  are  those  when  a  parent  thanks  her  for 
what  she  has  done  for  his  child. 

A  teacher  was  preparing  to  move  to  new  fields  of  labor  on 
Monday  morning.  He  attended  church  Sabbath  evening 
and  led  the  young  peoples'  meeting.  After  the  service  his 
friends  crowded  about  to  bid  him  good-by.  One  lady 
came  with  outstretched  hands  and  streaming  eyes,  and  in  a 
voice  of  deep  emotion,  said  she  could  never  thank  the 


248   THE  TEACHER,  THE  SCHOOL,  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

teacher  enough  for  what  he  had  done  for  her  boy.  She 
invoked  the  richest  of  Heaven's  blessings  upon  the  head  of 
the  teacher,  who  by  kindness  and  perseverance  had  won  her 
wayward  son  to  obedience  and  duty.  Was  not  that  teacher 
well  repaid?  The  occasional  reports  that  came  in  after 
years  of  that  young  man's  success  in  life  were  very  precious. 

How  many  of  us  can  look  back  to  our  own  childhood  in 
gratef ulness  for  some  patient,  self-denying,  faithful  teacher ! 
Such  never  goes  unrewarded.  Parents  and  pupils  are 
sometimes  slow  in  expressing  their  gratitude  to  the  teacher, 
but  in  their  hearts  they  are  truly  thankful,  and  repay  the 
debt  in  loving  remembrance. 

The  teacher  has  the  pleasure  of  being  engaged  in  an 
honorable,  useful  calling.  Who  does  not  prefer  above 
houses  and  lands  —  infinitely  above  all  the  wealth  of  the 
world,  the  consciousness  of  being  engaged  in  a  work  of  use- 
fulness? Man  was  made  for  usefulness,  and  who  would 
not  desire  to  answer  the  design  of  his  creation? 

The  very  usefulness  of  the  teacher's  calling  makes  it 
honorable.  "It  is  always  honorable  to  scatter  the  light  of 
truth."  Some  of  the  greatest  and  best  men  of  the  world 
have  been  teachers.  Confucius,  Seneca,  Socrates,  Aris- 
totle, and  Plato  were  noted  teachers  of  ancient  times. 
Roger  Ascham,  Edward  Thring,  John  Milton,  Froebel, 
Pestalozzi,  Arnold,  and  a  host  of  others  have  adorned  the 
profession  in  later  ages.  Many  distinguished  men  of  our 
own  country  might  be  mentioned,  who  began  their  careers 
of  usefulness  by  being  teachers  of  youth.  The  teacher's 
profession  is  certainly  an  honorable  one;  but  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  "it  is  not  the  position  which  makes  the  man 
honorable,  but  the  man  the  position." 


THE    REWARDS   OF   THE   SUCCESSFUL   TEACHER  249 

Let  the  teacher,  then,  study  to  improve  intellectually  and 
morally,  and  to  advance  in  the  art  of  teaching.  Let  her 
watch  the  growth  of  mind  under  her  guidance  and  be 
cheered  by  the  encouragement  which  that  affords.  Let 
her  consider  opportunities  for  usefulness  and  the  circum- 
stances which  make  her  calling  honorable.  Let  her  prize 
the  gratitude  of  pupils  and  of  their  parents  and  friends. 
And  above  all,  let  her  consider  the  rewards  which  await 
those  who  toil  hopefully  and  patiently  for  the  betterment  of 
humanity. 

The  twig  is  so  easily  bended, 

I  have  banished  the  rule  and  the  rod; 
I  have  taught  them  the  goodness  of  knowledge, 

They  have  taught  me  the  goodness  of  God. 
My  heart  is  a  dungeon  of  darkness, 

Where  I  shut  them  from  breaking  the  rule; 
My  frown  is  sufficient  correction; 

My  love  is  the  law  of  the  school. 


INDEX 


A  "bad"  school,  17-18 

Absence,  interference  of,  236 

Abstract,  the,  125 

Accurate  accountant,  78 

A  Child  of  the  Cold,  study  outline,  66 

A  country  teacher,  example,  8-n 

Advice  to  parents,  29 

Agricultural  clubs,  173 

Agricultural  extension  courses,  60 

Agriculture,    importance    of,    173 
studies  in,  174-206 

Alternating  classes,  23 

Amplification  in  composition,  128 

Analysis  in  grammar,  91,  93 

Animals,  160;  references  on,  161; 
stories  of,  136 

Appreciation,  parents',  247-248 

Aquarium,  34-35 

Arbor  Day,  198-200 

Arithmetic,     teaching     of,     73-80; 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  112 

Attendance,  236 

Attention,  43-44 

Autumn,  trees  in,  154-156 

AWAKENING  INTEREST  IN  SCHOOL 
(Chapter  V),  36-42:  use  of  ob- 
servation, 36;  general  exercises, 
37;  interesting  the  parents,  37; 
making  supplementary  studies  a 
hobby,  38;  what  one  teacher  did, 
38-41;  general  purpose,  42 

Backward  pupils,  15,  47 

Bad  characters,  16 

Beautifying  school  grounds,  198-200 

BEAUTIFYING  THE  SCHOOLROOM 
(Chapter  IV),  30-35:  making 
surroundings  bright  and  attrac- 
tive, 30;  what  one  teacher  did, 
30-32;  the  teacher's  part,  32; 
a  homelike  school,  32;  room  deco- 
ration, 33;  school  cabinet,  33; 
portfolio  plant  collections,  34; 


entomological  collections,  34;  an 
aquarium,  34;  keeping  in  mind 
schoolroom  needs,  35 

Beetles,  202,  204 

BEGINNING  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR 
(Chapter  I),  7-12:  importance  of 
good  beginning,  7;  how  one  teach- 
er began,  8-1 1 ;  plans  for  work,  1 1 ; 
making  room  homelike,  n;  ad- 
ministering reproof,  n;  the  in- 
dolent child,  12;  the  necessary 
rule,  12;  some  suggestions,  12 

Biglow  Papers,  extract  from,  40-41 

Biographies,  value  of,  82 

Bird  poems,  152,  159,  172 

Bird  studies,  150-152,  159,  169-172 

Bluebird,  145 

Body,  care  of,  113-117,  119-120 

Books,  use  of,  134;  choice  of,  135 

Box  library,  139-140 

Boxwood  maps,  102 

Bread,  223 

Breathing  exercises,  120-121 

Breeding  jar,  205 

Brook,  selection  from  Lowell,  162 

Bulbs,  work  with,  154 

Bulletins,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, 6 1 

Bureau  of  Entomology,  206 

Bureau  of  Forestry,  168 

Bureau  of  \Vood  Utilization,  168 

Business  arithmetic,  80 

Butterfly,  202 

Cabinets,  33 
Care  of  sick,  225 
Castor  oil,  112 
Catalogues,  140 
Caterpillars,  160,  202 
Celebrations,  57,  59 
Cheese,  study  of,  217 
Chickadee,  169,  170 
Childhood  surroundings,  30 


250 


INDEX 


251 


Cipher  Down,  79 

Civic  league,  224 

Civil  War,  study  of,  39-40 

CLASS  IN  READING,  THE  (Chapter 
VIII),  63-72:  purpose,  63;  sup- 
plementary material,  63-65;  Child 
of  the  Cold,  type  lesson,  66-67; 
methods,  67-69;  suggestions,  69- 
70;  reference  list,  70-72 

Class,  position  of,  44 

Clippings,  139,  140 

Club  extension  work,  54,  55,  56,  60 

Clubs,  farmers',  53 

Collections,  33-34,  172,  204 

Community,  betterment,  56;  center, 
52;  club  extension  work,  55;  club 
rule,  59;  clubs,  53;  gatherings,  49, 
52>  55>  56,  58,  59;  organization  of 
club,  53;  playground,  58-59; 
topics  for  study,  60 

Comparisons,  avoidance  of,  242 

CONDUCTING  RECITATIONS  (Chapter 
VI) ,  43-47 :  teacher's  knowledge 
and  enthusiasm,  43-44;  minor 
details,  44;  division  of  recitation, 
45;  manner  of  questioning,  45; 
avoidance  of  formal  routine,  45; 
use  of  intelligible  language,  46; 
helping  laggards  and  dullards,  47; 
recitation  the  real  test,  47 

Confusing  language,  46 

Confusion,  22-23 

Consolidation,  49-50 

Cooker,  fireless,  210 

Cooperative  activity,  52,  54,  56 

Corn  meal,  222-223 

Corn,  study  of,  184-187 

Corporal  punishment,  28 

Correct  standing,  118 

Cotton,  industrial  lesson,  103-106 

Country  clubs,  54 

Courtesy,  14 

Cover  crops,  200 

Credits  for  home  work,  207-209,  224 

Cross-fertilization,  194 

Cyanide  jar,  204 

Debate,  subjects  for,  60 
Decoration,    home,     225;     school, 
33-35 


Definitions,  correctness  of,  80 

Demands  of  country  life,  50 

Deportment,  19-23 

Devotional  exercises,  230-231 

Diagraming,  87,  91 

Discipline,  object  of,  14 

Disease,  cost  of,  in 

Domestic  science,  207-229 

Drills,  arithmetic,  78;  reading,  68; 
rest  and  exercise,  119-121 

Dull  pupils,  15,  47 

Dumb-bell  exercise,  120 

DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS 
(Chapter  XX),  236-243:  relative 
duties  and  obligations,  236;  par- 
ents fail  to  recognize  school's  im- 
portance, 236;  conditions  met  by 
one  teacher,  236-237;  parents 
overestimate  children's  knowl- 
edge, 237;  a  "smart"  young  miss, 
238;  parents  too  critical,  238;  in- 
clined to  dictate,  239;  lack  of 
acquaintance,  239;  parents  not  all 
to  blame,  239;  duties  of  teacher, 
240-241;  parents,  241-243 

Dwight's  Geography,  selection,  94 

Early  impressions,  16 
Earthworms,  181-182 
Economics,  home,  defined,  219 
Economy,  true,  228 
Educational  gardens,  173 
Eggs,  study  of,  218 
Embryo,  seed,  194 
Entertainment,    neighborhood,    49, 

56-59;  suggestions,  57;  funds,  57 
Entomological  collections,  34 
Equipment,  35,  49,  52 
Errors,  correction  of,  78 
Exciting  interest,  43 
Experiments,   with   corn,    195-196; 

with  food,  216;  plants,  191-193 
Extension,  community,  55;  courses, 

university,  60 

Fall  nature  study,  153-161 
Farm  Bulletins,  use  of,  139 
Farm  reference  books,  206 
Farmers'  club,  53-54 
Fireless  cooker,  210 


252 


INDEX 


First  aid,  111-113 

First  day  of  school,  7 

Fish,  food  value,  220 

Flower  poems,  147,  154,  156 

Flowers,  146,  154 

Food,    budget,    228;    experiments, 

216;  values,  214-216 
Forest  products,  167 
Forestry,  167-168 
Formal  routine,  45 
Formaldehyde,  112 
Formation  of  earth's  crust,  97 
Friday  afternoon,  233-234 
Frivolous  teachers,  13 
Frost,  162 
Fungi,  179-181 

Games,  value  of,  235 

General  exercises,  23 

Geographical  names,  99 

GEOGRAPHY  CLASS,  WITH  THE 
(Chapter  XII),  94-109:  purpose  of 
geography,  94;  supplementary 
reading,  95-108;  map  making, 
100-103;  problems,  103-106; 
topics,  106-107;  results,  io8;V" 
of  supplementary  books,  i< 

Germination,  152-153,  195-196 

Getting  together,  48 

Gilpin,  John,  abstract,  125 

Good  body,  113-117 

Good  manners,  240 

Good  order,  19 

Government  publications,  62,  140 

Government,  school,  13-23 

Grammar,  87-93,  I24 

Grasses,  183-184 

Growth  in  teaching,  246 

Habits,  health,  113-115;  of  speech, 

88;  personal,  114 
Harvest  Home,  197 
Health,  laws,  117;  rules,  116 
Heat  and  cold,  178 
Helps,   in  history,   82,   84,   86;   in 

geography,  108 
Historical  pageant,  58 
HISTORY  IN  THE  GRADES  (Chapter 

X),8i-86:  value,  81;  work  in  first 


five  grades,  81-82;  biography,  82; 
study  of  history  proper,  83;  use 
of  several  texts,  83;  outlines,  83; 
original  sources,  84;  iconoclasts, 
84;  making  history  alive,  85;  class 
management,  85-86;  helps,  86 

Hobby,  avoidance  of,  234 

Home,  bookless,  134;  decoration, 
225;  diversions,  56;  handicraft,  61; 
the  model,  225-226 

HOME  SCIENCE  (Chapter  XVIII), 
207-229:  teacher's  attitude,  207; 
home  economics  defined,  207; 
school  credits  for,  207-209;  hot 
school  lunch,  209-211;  a  model 
school,  212;  another  well- 
equipped  school,  213;  timeliness, 
213-214;  food  values,  214-223; 
sanitation,  223-225;  home  prob- 
lems, 225-226;  textiles,  227;  class 
in  gumption,  227;  thrift,  228-229 

Home  work,    207-209,  224 

Household  accounts,  228 

Housework  as  exercise,  121 

Humidifier,  use  of,  211 

Hygiene,  no 

Idleness,  19 

Ignorance,  admitting,  46 
Impartiality,  15 
Inaccuracy,  pupils',  78 
Indolence,  12 
Industrial  efficiency,  114 
Industrial  geography,  103-106 
Industry  topics,  106 
Infectious  diseases,  in 
Insect  collections,  204,  205 
Insects,  160-161;    202-206 
Interest,  the  child's,  42;  in  school, 

36-42 
Interruptions,  21 

Jonathan  to  John,  40-41 
Journeys,  imaginary,  96 
Juvenile  literature,  135 

Kinglet,  172 

Kitchen,  school,  212,  213 

Knowledge,  overestimated,  237 


INDEX 


253 


Laggards  and  dullards,  47 

Language,  use  of  confusing,  46; 
training,  89;  modern  usage,  90 

Larvae,  203 

Learning  to  read,  67-68 

Leaves,  148 

Legumes,  182-183 

Letter  writing,  131 

Library,  lists,  70;  school,  134-141 

Lichens,  179-181 

Lime  water,  113 

Lincoln,  39-40,  41 

Listerine,  112 

LITERATURE  AND  COMPOSITION 
(Chapter  XIV),  123-133:  im- 
portance, 123;  teacher's  duty,  123; 
purpose  of  all  teaching,  123;  culti- 
vation of  literary  taste,  124; 
composition  work,  125;  the  ab- 
stract, 125-127;  poems,  127; 
outline,  127;  amplification,  128- 
130;  paraphrasing,  130-131;  de- 
scriptive composition,  132;  tune 
for  study,  133 

Loss  of  privileges,  26 

Lunch,  school,  209-212 

Magazine  books,  139 

Magazines,  use  of,  64 

Management  of  school,  14 

Map  making:  relief,  100;  pulp, 
100-101;  salt  relief,  102;  sand, 
102;  boxwood,  102-103;  map 
drawing,  103  % 

Meat,  study  of,  218 

Meat  substitutes,  219-220 

Medical  inspectors,  113 

Medicine  cabinet,  111-113 

Menus,  planning,  228 

Methods,  67-68 

Migration,  151,  159 

Milk,  study  of,  217 

Minerals,  172 

Minnesota  schools,  49,  50,  55 

Miracles  of  transformation,  48 

Missouri  school  district,  212 

Mistakes  of  parents,  236-239 

Montaigne,  quoted,  81 

Morris,  Anna,  quoted,  117 

Mosses,  179-181 


Moths,  203 
Muscular  exercise,  122 

Names,  geographical,  99 

National  forests,  168 

National  Reading  Circle,  61 

Nature  poems,  144,  153 

NATURE  STUDY  (Chapter  XVI), 
142-172:  aim,  142;  timeliness, 
143;  material,  suggestions,  143; 
poems,  144-146,  150;  spring 
study,  145-153;  fall  study,  153- 
161;  winter  study,  162-172 

Nature's  packages,  149 

Neatness,  20 

Nicknames,  98 

Night  school,  49 

Niter,  sweet  spirits  of,  112 

Nitrogen  for  crops,  1 74 

Oak,  study  of,  165-166 
Obedience,  29 

On  Fighting  Decks  in  1812,  sugges- 
tions for  school  use,  136 
Orchard,  190-191 
Order,  importance,  13;  enemies,  19 
Organization,  community,  53-62 
Origin  of  geographical  names,  99 
Original  sources  in  history,  84 
Originality,  lack  of,  22 
Outdoor  recreation,  234 

Page,  David  P.,  quoted,  6,  24,  73,  87 
Pageant  of  pioneer  life,  58 
Papers  and  magazines,  138,  139 
Paraphrasing,  130-131 
Parents'  afternoon,  233 
Parents,  duties  of,  241-243 
Parents'  interest,  37 
Parsing,  87,  91 
Personal  acquaintance  with  parents, 

23? 

Physical  culture,  118-122 

Physical  geography,  97 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  HYGIENE 
(Chapter  XIII)  110-122:  teacher 
as  public  health  educator,  no; 
study,  no;  "ounce  of  preven- 
tion," in;  medicine  cabinet,  in- 
113;  medical  inspectors,  113; 


254 


INDEX 


awakening  appreciation  of  good 
body,  113-114;  industrial  effi- 
ciency, 114;  health  rules,  115-116; 
value  of  perfect  body,  116;  effect 
of  reflex  action  on  character,  117; 
good  form  and  courteous  bearing, 
118;  calisthenic  drill,  118;  poise 
and  self-possession,  119;  rest 
exercises,  120;  benefits  from  exer- 
cise and  deep  breathing,  120; 
breathing  exercises,  120-121;  the 
best  exercise,  121;  housework, 
121-122;  object  of  muscular 
exercise,  122;  references,  122 

Physiology,  object  of,  1 10 

Pictures,  use  of,  140,  143;  geo- 
graphical, IOO 

Plants,  experiments  with,  191 

Playground,  49,  58 

Poetical  names,  98 

Poetry,  137 

Portfolio  plant  collection,  34 

Potato  Growers'  Association,  59-60 

Practical  arithmetic,  75-78 

Practical  problems,  76-77 

Prevention,  ounce  of,  in 

Progress  in  country  life,  48 

Public  health,  1 10 

Pulp  maps,  1 01 

Punishments,  24-29 

Pupils,  backward,  15,  47;  bad,  16; 
clean,  242;  dull,  15,  47 

Pythagoras,  quoted,  246 

Quarles,  quoted,  29 
Questioning,  45 

Radiopticon,  108 

Rain,  146 

Reading,  63-72 

Recitation,   conducting,   43-47;   as 

test,  47 

Recognition  of  words,  69 
Recreation,  230-235;  in  arithmetic, 

79;    in    geography,    95-100;    in 

grammar,  91-93;  in  history,  86; 

in  reading,  69-70;  in  recitation, 

232-233 
Relief  maps,  103 


REWARDS  OF  THE  SUCCESSFUL 
TEACHER,  THE  (Chapter  XXI), 
244-249:  calling  unappreciated, 
244;  pecuniary  value,  244;  teach- 
ers may  control  wages,  245; 
reward  not  money  getting,  245; 
intellectual  growth,  245;  moral 
growth,  246;  consciousness  of 
improvement,  246;  pleasure  in 
watching  pupils'  growth,  246; 
remembrance  of  pupils,  247-248; 
usefulness,  248;  some  illustrious 
teachers,  248;  rewards,  248 

Rice,  223 

Ridicule,  25 

Routine,  avoiding,  45 

Rules,  for  all,  14;  for  health,  116; 
for  school  management,  11-12 

Rural  disease,  in 

Rural  school  grounds,  48,  198 

Salary  control,  245 

Salt  relief  maps,  102 

Sanitation,  iio-m,  223-225 

Scholarship,  teacher's,  16 

SCHOOL  AS  A  COMMUNITY  CENTER, 
THE  (Chapter  VII),  48-62:  for 
promotion  of  neighborliness,  48; 
miracles  of  transformation,  48; 
modern  equipment,  49;  waste  of 
small  school,  50;  model  one- 
teacher  school,  50-52;  community 
club,  53;  cooperative  work,  54; 
a  Young  Women's  Club,  54;  ex- 
tension work,  '55-56;  a  Texas 
organization,  56;  social  life  solu- 
tion of  the  rural  problem,  56-57; 
school  an  art  center,  58;  country 
life  club,  58;  community  play- 
ground, 58-59;  rule  for  club,  59; 
cooperation  in  Wisconsin,  59; 
short  extension  courses,  60;  sub- 
jects for  study,  60;  help  from 
Bureau  of  Education,  61 

School  cabinet,  33 

School  credits  for  home  work,  207- 
209 

School  fair,  58 

School  farm,  48,  49 

School  gardens,  173,  196-198,  212 


INDEX 


255 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT  (Chapter  II), 
13-23:  need  of  order,  13;  requi- 
sites in  teacher,  13-15;  dull  pupils, 
15;  scholarship,  16;  securing  order, 
16;  one  teacher's  methods,  17-18; 
pleasure  of  well-doing,  18;  devices 
and  helps,  19-22;  recitation, 
22-23;  teacher's  motto,  23 

School  home,  57;  homelike,  32 

School  in  Township  Ten,  30-32 

SCHOOL  LIBRARY/THE  (Chapter  XV) , 
134-141 :  value  of,  134;  a  bookless 
home,  134;  reading  an  educational 
agency,  134;  teacher's  best  work, 
134;  choice  of  books,  135;  uses  of 
books,  135;  fiction,  135-136;  his- 
tory and  travel,  136;  poetry,  137; 
founding  a  library,  138-139; 
papers  and  magazines,  139-140; 
clippings,  140;  reference  library, 
140;  library  as  avenue  for  reach- 
ing parents,  141 

School  management,  requisites,  14 

Schoolmaster's  Guests,  outline,  127 

School  newspaper,  231-232 

School  plant,  object  of,  48 

SCHOOL  PUNISHMENTS  (Chapter 
III),  24-29:  punishment  defined, 
24;  classified,  24;  wrong  punish- 
ments, 24-26;  legitimate  punish- 
ments, 26-29 

SCHOOL  RECREATIONS  AND  AMUSE- 
MENTS (Chapter  XIX),  230-235: 
value,  230;  devotional  exercises, 
230-231;  responsive  quotations, 
231;  current  events,  232;  news- 
paper, 232;  recreation  in  recita- 
tion, 232-233;  Friday  afternoon, 
233-234;.  authors'  birthdays,  234; 
gymnastic  recreations,  234;  ex- 
periment lessons,  school  debates, 
and  exhibitions,  234;  outdoor 
amusements,  234;  a  minute's 
change,  235;  teacher's  interest, 
235;  value  of  games,  235 

School's  social  obligations,  57-60 

Schools,  consolidated,  49;  model, 
48-52 

Schools  dependent  on  teachers,  43 

Science,  home,  207-229 


Scolding,  folly  of,  26 

Scripture  readings,  231 

Seating  plans,  45 

Seeds,  153,  156-158,  194-196 

Self-mastery,  13 

Sick,  credits  for  care  of,  225 

Sick  stomach,  113 

Signal  Service,  97 

Skinner,  H.  M.,  quoted,  84 

Smart,  James  H.,  quoted,  121 

Snow  Bound,  selection   from,  128; 

amplification  of,  129-130 
Social  life  and  rural  problems,  56 
Social  organization,  57 
Soils,  study  of,  175-182 
Song  of  Grass  Blades,  quoted,  183 
Sore  throat,  113 
Special  autumn  work,  200-202 
Special  spring  work,  191-196 
Spring  nature  study,  145-153 
Spring  poems,  145 
Standing,  correct,  118 
Stems,  study  of,  191-193 
Stereopticon,  107 

Submission  for  self-preservation,  25 
Sugar  beets,  189 
Sugar  cane,  189-190 
Sulphur,  113 
Supplementary,    books,     in    geog- 

raphy, 95;  in  reading,  64;  studies, 


Sweet  oil,  112 

Swift,  Jonathan,  quoted,  4 

Sympathy,  need  of,  243 

TALK  WITH  THE  GRAMMAR  TEACHER, 
A,  (Chapter  XI),  87-93:  difficulty 
of  grammar,  87;  requisites  for  suc- 
cessful teaching,  87;  grammar  not 
an  exact  science,  87;  use  of  parsing 
and  diagraming,  87-88;  language 
before  grammar,  88;  outline,  89; 
supplementary  work,  89;  accuracy 
and  facility,  90;  modern  usage,  90; 
good  writing  defined,  90;  sentence 
analysis,  90;  recreations,  91-93; 
object,  93 

Teacher:  advent  of  the  new,  7-8; 
as  companion,  235;  attainments 
not  enough,  38;  calling,  244; 


INOKX 


criterion  of  good  teacher,  44; 
definition  of,  41;  duties  of,  240- 
241;  health  promoter,  no;  im- 
portance of,  15;  manners  of, 
240;  preparation,  44;  profession, 
value  of,  245;  rewards,  245-248; 
scholarship,  16,  73~74>  7^ 

TEACHING  ARITHMETIC  (Chapter 
IX),  73-80:  teacher's  knowledge 
and  preparation,  73-74;  practical 
work,  75-78;  accuracy,  78;  Cipher 
Down,  79;  neatness  and  system, 
79;  written  reviews  and  tests,  79; 
definitions,  80;  aim,  80 

Testing  seed,  195-196 

Texas  school,  56 

Textbooks,  66-67;  95 

Textiles,  227 

Thaxter,  Celia,  quoted,  184 

Thompson,  Maurice,  quoted,  144 

Thrift,  228-229 

Tree  poems,  150,  156,  164 

Trees,  147-150;  154-156;  163-168 

Truthfulness,  18 

Turpentine,  112 

Unhealthy  living,  114 
University  extension  courses,  60 
Usefulness  of  teaching,  248 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  help,  6 1 

Van  Cleve,  quoted,  63 
Variety  in  composition,  91 
Vegetables,  study  of,  221-222 
Vital  element  of  recitation,  47 

Wages  under  teacher's  control,  245 
Waking  up  minds,  36 


Walking,  118 

Washington,  a  school  in,  49 

Water,  work  of,  178 

Weeds,  201-202 

Well-doing,  pleasure  of,  18 

WHAT  TO  DO  WITH  AGRICULTURE 
(Chapter  XVII),  173-206:  agri- 
culture in  schools,  173;  educa- 
tional gardens,  173;  interest  of 
states,  173;  agriculture  and  neigh- 
borhood problems,  1 74-1 75 ;  study 
of  soils,  175-177;  special  topics, 
problems,  and  references,  176- 
177;  soil  making,  178-179;  fungi, 
lichens,  and  mosses,  179-181; 
work  of  earthworms,  181;  legumes, 
182-183;  grasses,  183-184;  corn, 
184-187;  wheat,  187-188;  sugar- 
producing  plants,  189-190;  the 
orchard,  190-191;  special  spring 
work,  191-195;  testing  seed,  195- 
196;  school  garden,  196-198; 
Arbor  Day,  198-200;  special  au- 
tumn work,  200-201;  weeds,  201- 
202;  insects,  202-204;  insect  col- 
lections, 204-206 

Wheat,  study  of,  187-188 

White,  Emerson,  quoted,  89 

Whittier,  quoted,  128 

Wind,  145-146 

Winter  nature  study,  162-172 

Woodpecker,  red-headed,  170 

Wood  utilization,  168 

Writing  letters,  131 

Writing,  requisites  of  good,  90 

Written  work,  neatness  of,  79 

Young  Women's  Country  Club, 
54-56 


04562 


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